Lecture
Synonymy — is one of the types of semantic relations in language that implies full or partial coincidence of the meanings of linguistic expressions.
Synonymy — is one of the types of semantic relations (see Semantics) in language that implies full or partial coincidence of the meanings of linguistic expressions. The properties of synonymic relations are determined by the type of meaning (see Meaning), as well as by the system of similarities and differences established between the meanings of linguistic expressions or units of language.
A distinction is made between synonymy by signification and synonymy by denotation. The first consists in the coincidence (partial or full) of the concepts denoted by the linguistic expressions. The second represents the coincidence of denotata, that is, of the objects to which the linguistic expressions refer.
Synonymy by signification is determined through logical or linguistic analysis of concepts. The most precise picture of this type of synonymy is given by examining the differential features of a concept. Linguistic expressions are considered synonyms when certain differential features coincide. In a number of cases a full coincidence of features is observed, that is, full synonymy of linguistic expressions. For example, the words «linguistics» and «the study of language» denote one and the same concept (a humanities discipline that studies natural language), and are therefore complete synonyms. However, such coincidences do not exhaust all cases of synonymic relations. Synonymy by signification also implies the coincidence of only some differential features. In that case, the synonymy of two linguistic expressions is determined not only by this coincidence but also by the character of their usage. For example, the significations of the verbs «to speak» and «to shout» can be represented as sets of the following differential features: to speak = to shout = to produce speech sounds with the voice very loudly). The coincidence of part of the features allows these words to be used as synonyms (for example, in the sentence: «Speak, shout, just don't be silent»). However, analysis of the signification of the expressions given makes it possible to establish that other types of semantic relations can also be established between them. In different contexts, both the coincidences and the differences of differential features may prove essential. If the use of linguistic expressions is connected with a coincidence of features (as in the example above), then in that context these expressions function as synonyms. However, a usage is also possible in which the presence of opposite features is essential. Such a context establishes between them a relation of antonymy — a type of semantic relation directly opposite to synonymic ones.
Synonymy by denotation represents the coincidence of the referential meanings of linguistic expressions. In this sense, the expressions «Napoleon Bonaparte», «Emperor of France from 1804 to 1814», «The commander defeated at Waterloo», are synonymous — denoting one and the same individual object; or the expressions «ostrich» and «the largest bird on Earth», denoting one and the same class of objects. A feature of the examples given is that expressions synonymous by denotation are not synonyms by signification. Therefore they not only name the same thing differently. The criterion for synonymy by denotation is the actual truth of the judgments connecting these concepts. For example, «The largest bird on Earth is the ostrich». Synonymy by denotation is an important tool for representing knowledge. Its use makes it possible to give a complete description of an object, since the non-coinciding concepts of the object expressed by the synonyms complement one another, representing its different aspects. The question of synonymy of linguistic expressions is closely connected with G. W. Leibniz's logical principle of interchangeability (salva veritate). According to this principle, if two linguistic expressions denote one and the same object (that is, are synonyms by denotation), then substituting one for the other in any sentence should not change the truth value of that sentence. Thus, sentence (1) «The ostrich lives in Africa» will remain true if «the largest bird on Earth» is substituted for «ostrich». There exist, however, contexts (called intensional) in which this principle is violated. If sentence (2) «Ornithologists have found that the ostrich is the largest bird on Earth» is true, then the sentence «Ornithologists have found that the ostrich is an ostrich» is false. From an epistemological point of view it is clear that sentences (1) and (2) reflect different states of knowledge. Interchangeability of the terms in sentence (1) is possible because the synonymy is already assumed to be established. Nothing of the kind, however, is assumed in (2). The intensional context indicates the existence of a question regarding synonymy by denotation. In other words, this very context implies a discussion of the question of whether the significations of the expressions are concepts about one and the same object.
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