Lecture
Это окончание невероятной информации про психофизиология функциональных состояний.
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the optimal level of stress, because if stress increases further, then it becomes harmful to the body.
Stages of stress development. Any stimulus that causes a stress response must first be perceived (although not necessarily consciously) by sensory receptors of the peripheral nervous system. Having perceived this irritation, the receptors send impulses along the sensory pathways of the peripheral nervous system to the brain. In the central nervous system from the main ways, going back to the neocortex, there are nerve branches that go to the reticular formation and further to the diencephalon formations. Therefore, perceived events receive a proper assessment in the structures of the brain associated with the provision of motivation-need sphere of a person (hypothalamus and the limbic system).
Ultimately, all the flows of nervous impulses along the ascending paths enter the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, where their meaningful, semantic interpretation is carried out. The results of this interpretation via feedback channels fall into the limbic system. If the stimulus is interpreted as a threat or challenge, provoking a pronounced emotional evaluation, a stress reaction occurs. For many people, the activation of emotions (both negative and positive) is an incentive for stress.
So, in the most general form, the conditions for the emergence of a reaction to stress are as follows: any stimulus receives a double interpretation — objective (in the cerebral cortex) and subjective (in the limbic system). If the subjective assessment speaks of a threat, i.e. has a negative affective coloring (fear, anger), it acquires the role of a trigger, automatically triggering a sequence of relevant physiological reactions. In the case when there is no perception of the threat, a stress reaction does not occur.
The main way of spreading the stress reaction in the body is the vegetative nervous system and, first of all, its sympathetic section, the effects of which have been described above.
The human body copes with stress in three ways.
1. Stressors are analyzed in the higher parts of the cerebral cortex, after which certain signals go to the muscles responsible for movement, preparing the body to respond to a stressor.
2. Stressor affects the autonomic nervous system. Pulses are becoming more frequent, blood pressure is rising, the level of erythrocytes is increasing and the sugar content in the blood is growing, breathing becomes frequent and intermittent. This increases the amount of oxygen supplied to the tissues. A person is ready to fight or flight.
3. From the analyzers of the cortex, signals enter the hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The adrenal glands regulate adrenaline, which is a general, fast-acting stimulant. The hypothalamus transmits a signal to the pituitary gland, and that to the adrenal glands, resulting in increased synthesis of hormones and their release into the blood. Hormones, in general, provide slow body protection. They alter the water-salt balance of the blood, increasing the pressure, stimulate the rapid digestion of food and release energy; hormones increase the number of leukocytes in the blood, stimulating the immune system and allergic reactions.
The longest somatic reactions to stress are the result of activation of the "endocrine axes". This term refers to the endocrine pathways along which stress response is performed. There are three main "endocrine axes" that are involved in the stress response of a person: adrenocortical, somatotropic and thyroid . They are associated with the activation of the cortex and medulla of the adrenal glands and the thyroid gland. It has been shown that these axes can be activated through numerous and diverse psychological influences, including various psychosocial stimuli. The reaction along the endocrine axes is not only prolonged in time, but, as a rule, occurs with some delay. The latter is due, firstly, to the fact that the only transport mechanism for these axes is the circulatory system, and, secondly, the fact that their activation requires a stronger stimulus.
All these biochemical and physiological changes mobilize the body to "fight" or "flight." When a conflict situation requires an immediate response, adaptive mechanisms work well and smoothly, biochemical reactions are accelerated, and the subsequent functional changes in organs and tissues allow the body to respond to the threat with double force.
In the life of a primitive person, most of the stressful effects ended with a pronounced activity of the body (the reaction of "fight or flight"). In the modern world, stress, often limited to only internal manifestations, can become protracted. In this case, the body has no chance to normalize the already included stress-adaptation processes, although the nervous system continues to respond to stressors in a way that is usual for the human body. At the same time, none of the above physiological reactions can be arbitrarily excluded from the traditional reaction complex. The stress-adaptive system of our body is relatively non-specific and responds with the same changes to both good and bad events.
So, as already emphasized, in the modern world, stressful reactions to psychosocial stimuli are not so much the result of the stimuli themselves, but rather the result of their cognitive interpretation, as well as emotional arousal.
В 1956 г. Селье разработал концепцию "общего адаптационного синдрома" (ОАС). ОАС есть не что иное, как усилие организма приспособиться к изменившимся условиям среды за счет включения специальных защитных механизмов, выработанных в процессе эволюции. ОАС разделяется на три стадии.
Первая называется стадией тревоги . Эта стадия связана с мобилизацией защитных механизмов организма. Во время этой стадии эндокринная система отвечает нарастающей активацией всех трех осей. При этом главную роль играет адрено-кортикальная система.
Вторая стадия называется стадией сопротивленияor resistance. This stage is distinguished by the highest possible level of body resistance to the action of harmful factors. It expresses the efforts of the body to maintain the state of homeostasis (the equilibrium of the internal environment) in the changed conditions.
The last stage is the stage of exhaustion . If the impact of the stressor continues, then as a result, the "energy of adaptation," adaptive mechanisms involved in maintaining the stage of resistance are exhausted. Then the body enters the final stage - the stage of exhaustion. In some cases, the survival of an organism can be seriously threatened.
Сущность ОАС ясно излагает сам Селье: "Ни один организм, — подчеркивает он, — не может постоянно находиться в состоянии тревоги. Если агент настолько силен, что значительное воздействие его становится несовместимым с жизнью, животное погибает еще на стадии тревоги, в течение первых часов или дней. Если оно выживает, за первоначальной реакцией обязательно следует стадия резистентности. Эта вторая стадия отвечает за сбалансированное расходование адаптационных резервов. При этом поддерживается практически не отличающееся от нормы существование организма в условиях повышенного требования к его адаптационным возможностям. Но поскольку адаптационная энергия не беспредельна, то, если стрессор продолжает действовать, наступает третья стадия — истощение".
The consequences of prolonged and short-term stress. Mental and somatic (physical) are so closely intertwined that there can be no mental phenomenon without a subsequent somatic and vice versa, there is no somatic phenomenon without a psychological one. Stress response is a concentrated essence of the relationship of the psyche and the body.
It is considered that all the symptoms caused by stress are psychosomatic. This means that all systems are involved in the response to stress - nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal , etc. Very often, especially after prolonged stress, weakness occurs due to exhaustion of the entire body. As a rule, stress causes a deterioration in the activity of the “weakest” link in the body, an already diseased organ, for example, a stomach ulcer against the background of chronic gastritis. By weakening the body's immune system, stress increases the risk of infectious diseases. Most often, stress affects the state of the cardiovascular system.
It has been found that with stress breathing becomes more frequent.
With a short stress, excess oxygen in the blood causes shortness of breath. If the stress is long, then frequent breathing will continue until the mucous surfaces of the nasopharynx are dry. The person in this case feels chest pain due to spasm of the respiratory muscles and the diaphragm. However, due to the deterioration of the protective functions of the mucous membrane of the nasopharynx, the probability of various infectious diseases increases dramatically.
An increase in blood sugar, which is also part of the body's response to stress, causes its chain reaction. First, an increase in the level of sugar (glucose) provokes an increased secretion of insulin, the pancreatic hormone, which, in turn, contributes to the deposition of glucose in the form of glycogen in the liver, muscles, and its partial conversion to fat. As a result, the concentration of sugar in the blood falls, and a person has a feeling of hunger, and the body requires immediate compensation. This state in turn stimulates further insulin secretion, and the blood sugar level continues to decline.
Thus, under stress, all systems of the body suffer in one way or another.
Individual differences. In 1974, M. Friedman and R. Rosenman's A-Type Behavior and Your Heart was published, the first and most significant study of the relationship between stress and diseases of the cardiovascular system. Two polar types of behavior were singled out and, accordingly, groups of people in which one of the two behavioral patterns predominated: type A or type B. The first type includes behavior oriented toward success and life achievement. And it is this type of behavior that significantly increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases and sudden death.
Under laboratory conditions, it was shown that both types respond differently to the information load. The nature of these reactions is consistent with the predominance of the activity of one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system: sympathetic (type A) or parasympathetic (type B). The first responds to the load by increasing the pulse, increasing blood pressure and other autonomic reactions that accompany the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Type B in the same conditions reacts according to the parasympathetic variant: a decrease in the heart rate and other relevant vegetative manifestations.
So, type A is characterized by a high level of motor activity and the predominance of sympathetic reactions, i.e. this type is characterized by constant readiness for action. Type B is a response option with a predominance of parasympathetic effects, it is characterized by a decrease in motor activity and a relatively low willingness to engage in action. These differences determine the different sensitivity of this and another type to stress effects. One of the ways to prevent cardiovascular diseases is to reduce the patient's behavior in the repertoire of type A manifestations.
Fight against stress. Therapy of stressful conditions is a complex task involving a number of aspects. Among them it should be noted, first of all, a person’s own position. It is about the responsibility of a person for their health. The statement that excessive stress and emotional disorders depend on the way the individual interprets his environment is directly related to the recognition of a person’s personal responsibility for his attitude to what is happening and, thus, for his health. Moreover, the very possibility of using certain means of dealing with stress and the effectiveness of their use depend on how consciously a person approaches his health. Psychophysiological methods for the correction of stressful conditions are associated primarily with the use of feedback techniques (see Chrestomat. 3.1) (see Chrestomat. 3.2) (see Chrestomat. 3.3) (see Chrestomat. 3.4).
Theoretically, pain is not considered a special functional state. By definition, pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with true or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage . Nevertheless, long-term (chronic) pains change the psychophysiological state of a person so substantially, and in some cases, the worldview as a whole, that it seems appropriate to pay special attention to the analysis of this phenomenon.
The typology of pain is carried out according to a number of signs. By the nature of localization, all pain manifestations are divided into somatic and visceral .
Somatic pain. In turn, somatic pain can be superficial or deep. The pain that occurs in the skin is called superficial . Pain localized in the muscles, bones, joints and connective tissues is called deep .
Superficial pain, caused, for example, by a prick of the skin, is, as a rule, bright in character and easily localized sensation, quickly dying away with the cessation of stimulation. Often, this early pain with a delay of 0.5-1.0 s is followed by the so-called late pain, dull and aching. This pain is more difficult to locate, and it slowly fades away.
Deep pain is one of the most common in humans and animals. It is usually dull, difficult to localize and tends to radiate to surrounding tissues. However, there are types of acute as well as chronic pain in the joints, skeletal muscles and connective tissues.
Visceral pain is associated with painful sensations in the internal organs. For example, visceral pain can be caused by rapid and severe stretching of the hollow organs of the abdominal cavity. Spasms, or severe contractions, of internal organs also belong to the type of visceral pain.
Duration of pain. An important characteristic of pain is its duration. So, short-term acute pain is usually limited to the damaged area (for example, a skin burn). In this case, the person knows exactly where it is localized, and is aware of the degree of its intensity. Such pain indicates a threatening or already occurring tissue damage and therefore has a clear signal and warning function. After repairing the damage, it quickly disappears.
Along with this, persistent and recurrent forms of pain are the so-called chronic types of pain. To chronic pain include those that last more than six months. Chronic pains are quite long and recur more or less regularly (for example, headaches, called migraines). Chronic pain can also include the so-called "phantom" pain that occurs in those limbs that have been amputated.
Normal chronic pain cannot be attributed to any physiological function. In this regard, it is “meaningless,” and we must get rid of it. From the point of view of sensory physiology, chronic pain has no direct connection between its intensity and the degree of organic damage. Sometimes chronic pain does not depend on the disorder underlying it and manifests itself as a separate, individual syndrome, fundamentally different from acute pain.
The components of pain. Any pain includes a number of components, or components. These components of pain include sensory, affective, autonomic, motor and cognitive components.
The sensory component transmits to the cerebral cortex information about the location of the source of pain, the beginning and end of its action and its intensity. The person is aware of this information in the form of sensation, just like other sensory signals, such as smell or pressure.
The affective component colors this information with unpleasant experiences.
The vegetative component provides a response to pain stimulation. For example, when the hand is immersed in hot water, the blood vessels dilate, but in both cases the blood pressure rises, the pulse quickens, the pupils dilate, the breathing rhythm changes. This is the so-called vegetative component of pain. With severe pain, the reaction of the autonomic nervous system may be more pronounced, for example, with biliary colic, nausea, vomiting, sweating, a sharp drop in blood pressure may occur.
The motor component most often manifests itself as a avoidance or defense reflex. Muscular tension is manifested as an involuntary reaction aimed at avoiding pain.
The cognitive component of pain is associated with a rational assessment of the origin and content of pain, as well as the regulation of pain-related behavior.
In early ontogenesis, pain plays the role of feedback, which fixes the experience and changes the corresponding manifestations of the child's psychic reality. It has been proven that behavioral and emotionally normal reactions to painful stimuli are not innate, they are acquired during development. If this experience is not acquired in early childhood, it is very difficult to develop appropriate reactions later. So puppies, specially protected from harmful stimuli in the first eight months of life, were unable to properly respond to pain, for example, they repeatedly "sniffed" the fire, and responded to a deep immersion of the needle into the skin only with local reflex winches.
In ontogenesis, a gradation is also formed in the assessment of pain (weak, disturbing, strong, unbearable). The main thing in this assessment is a comparison of the pain experienced at the moment with the previously experienced types of pain. In other words, the current state is measured relative to previous experiences stored in memory and evaluated in the light of experience. Such an assessment can be considered as a cognitive component. Depending on the result of this comparison, the psychomotor component of pain will be expressed differently: facial expressions, groans, complaints, various requests, etc. Cognitive judgment is likely to influence the degree of manifestation of the affective and vegetative components of pain. So, for example, a person suffers more from pain, which, in his opinion, has an important effect on well-being than from the same intensity, but habitual and subjectively assessed as harmless.
A number of other factors influence the assessment of pain and its expression, for example, a person’s complaints about pain depend on his social status, family upbringing and ethnic background. Thus, in the rite of initiation of adolescents in a number of tribes in Africa and South America, the pain, unbearable from the point of view of a normal European, should not be accompanied by any external manifestations in a young man undergoing the rite.
In addition, the circumstances in which it occurs have a decisive influence on the assessment of pain. It is known that athletes in responsible competitions do not experience pain even from a serious injury, and, in addition, they require significantly less painkillers than people who have received the same injuries under normal conditions.
Interestingly, no significant correlation has been obtained between the behavior in pain and stable personality traits, such as extraversion and introversion. In other words, it is impossible to predict a person’s reaction to pain based on the knowledge of personality traits.
As a rule, all the components of pain occur together, but their ratio and severity of each can vary depending on the type of pain and a number of other factors. However, since they are associated with different parts of the nervous system, all components of pain can, in principle, arise in isolation from each other. For example, a sleeping person can withdraw his hand from a painful stimulus, without even consciously feeling the pain.
Nociceptive system. What physiological systems and processes are associated with the occurrence of pain? Until recently, there was a point of view that pain does not have specific physiological mechanisms. As a sensation, it can occur in any sensory system, if the effect is too strong. However, it was experimentally shown that there is a special brain system that provides for the perception and transmission of pain information to the cerebral cortex. Objective processing of pain signals is carried out in a special brain system called nociceptive . It includes special types of receptors that ensure the perception of painful stimuli, nerve fibers and pathways in the spinal cord, as well as the central structures in the brainstem - the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. Pain as an experience is a reflection of the work of this system in the mind - a subjective component. It follows from this that pain as an experience may not always be associated with a real pain stimulus. If arousal occurs in the pathways and higher centers of the nociceptive system, bypassing the pain receptors, the person will experience pain in the absence of real pain effects. Such pain has a pathological nature and requires treatment.
A feature of the nociceptive system as a brain substrate of pain is also the presence of special inhibitory mechanisms that act at the level of the spinal cord and a number of brain centers. When these mechanisms are turned on, the excitability level of the nociceptive system as a whole is reduced, and the pain as a sensation decreases or disappears completely. These concepts underlie the theory of gate pain control. The inclusion of central gate control mechanisms explains those cases in which a severely injured person has almost no pain.
Pain relief methods. The human body has its own ability to reduce the activity of the nociptionary system. Endogenous pain suppression systems are associated, firstly, with the presence on the neurons of the nociceptive system of specific formations, the so-called opiate receptors. These receptors interact with substances such as opium and morphine, so the latter cause the removal of pain. However, substances are produced in the brain itself - endorphins, which, interacting with opiate receptors, cause sedation and pain relief. Secondly, in the deep structures of the brain are found centers, electrical stimulation which causes anesthesia. It has also been established that electrical stimulation of the entire brain can cause a reduction in pain. This phenomenon is called elektronarkozy.
Therapeutic methods of pain relief include pharmacological, physical and psychological methods.
In pharmacological methods of pain relief, various types of narcological and non-narcological analgesics (substances that relieve and / or relieve pain) are used.
For physical relief from pain, various types of physiotherapy are used. These include hot or cold, massage, gymnastics, electrical stimulation and neurosurgery. Recently in European culture, the acupuncture method has been increasingly used to relieve pain. Most of the neurosurgical modern means are extreme means of affecting pain. Of greatest practical importance is the transection of the nerve paths, which interrupts the conduction of nocipative signals. It can very effectively alleviate severe chronic pain for several weeks or even months.
Psychological methods of alleviating pain are usually resorted to in cases where the peripheral basis of pain is unclear. In these cases, psychotherapy plays a significant role. It uses such tools as hypnosis, auto-training, meditation.
Theoretical and experimental studies in the field of physiology present biological feedback as a process of self-regulation of behavioral and physiological functions.
Homeostasis The term "homeostasis" was proposed by V. Kennon in 1932. It refers to the coordination of physiological processes that support most of the stable states of the body and suggests the presence of equilibrium, steady state and stability of most physiological systems. Thus, homeostasis determines the dynamic constancy of the internal environment and its fluctuations within acceptable limits. There are well-known biological constants under which the full existence of the organism is possible: body temperature, blood pressure, glucose and oxygen concentration in the blood, and others. The human body is an open system, with external influences constantly destabilizing the internal environment, disrupting its constancy, so necessary for full-fledged life activity. Nevertheless, homeostasis is maintained through complex coordinated mechanisms of self-regulation, among which feedback plays an important role.
Biofeedback. In living organisms, self-regulation is mediated by feedback mechanisms. The term "feedback" was first used in the technique to describe the automatic control of machine operations.
In a healthy organism, information about the results of an organ (nerve center, gland, muscle) is always returned in one way or another to it. Based on this, changes and adjustments are made to the original activity. This creates a feedback loop. This mechanism operates at almost all levels of the organization of a living organism, ranging from feedback loops responsible for changing the rate of flow of the most elementary biochemical reactions, to extremely complex types of behavioral activity. Moreover, the most significant moment in the structural organization of feedback is the availability of certain information about the result or characteristics of the course of a process, in order to be able to change it in a direction useful to the body.
Feedback (afferentation) is the most important link in functional systems at all levels of the organization. In other words, its value goes far beyond the regulation of homeostasis. It acts as the most important mechanism of self-regulation of the behavior and activities of animals and humans. The main interest is represented by those reciprocal, regulatory, brain-mediated interactions between the motor mechanism and the receptor, in which the feedback from the receptor controls the motor response and is itself regulated by it. The fundamental properties of this interaction for living organisms are dynamism, closedness of the control loop and continuity of action. However, the analysis of feedback in this respect is largely a subject of future research.
Artificial feedback. An important feature of the feedback is that it can be considered as a method of regulating the functional states of the body and managing human activity, the first of which is more related to psychophysiology, the second to labor psychology and ergonomics. The point is that with the help of specially designed devices information about the functional state of a person or the results of his activity is recorded, converted into a readable form and sent back. Analyzing the "returned" information, a person decides on the next steps in his behavior, be it the control of the state of the organism or the fulfillment of the production task. In other words, with the help of special equipment, an artificial loop of “feedback” is created, with the help of which a person is able to consciously regulate many functions of his body, ranging from a change in the rate of flow of elementary psycho-physiological reactions to extremely complex activities. The most important thing in organizing hardware feedback is to provide specific information available to a person about the result or characteristics of a particular process, so that the person has the opportunity to change it in any, but better in a useful organism, direction.
There are numerous data indicating that if there is relevant information based on feedback, a person can learn to change such functions of his body that were previously considered inaccessible for arbitrary regulation and conscious control.
Electromyographic (EMG) feedback. This type of communication is based on the use of a myograph , a device that captures and amplifies electrical impulses that occur during muscular tension . The myograf records the level of muscular activity and converts this activity into signals that are accessible to a person’s perception, in proportion to the strength of muscular tension. Depending on the type of device, feedback with the person is carried out using light or sound signals. In the first studies, for example, the room illumination changed: the more a person strained his muscles, the brighter the light bulbs shone, and vice versa. Having set out to reduce the level of muscular tension, a person in the evaluation of the results of his efforts focuses on changes in light. A person thus perceives these sensory stimuli as information he needs to change the degree of muscular tension, for relaxation.
Temperature feedback. The use of temperature coupling is based on the fact that the peripheral temperature of the skin reflects the degree of constriction or expansion of the blood vessels. When the peripheral blood vessels are dilated, the blood flow through them increases and the skin becomes warmer. By measuring the temperature in the extremities, it is possible to determine the degree of narrowing of the blood vessels, and since their narrowing and expansion is regulated by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, one can thus indirectly estimate the degree of sympathetic activity.
The equipment for temperature feedback consists of a sensor and a processing device. As with the registration of muscular tension, the available stimuli tell the person about the temperature of the skin in proportion to its changes.
Electroencephalographic (EEG) feedback. A description of the method of EEG recording is given in Chapter 2. When studying feedback of this type, EEG is recorded in the usual way, however, the frequency and amplitude characteristics of the test subjects' monitored parameters (usually an alpha rhythm or theta rhythm) are predetermined and the “window” is adjusted according to their magnitude. sound feedback. A person receives feedback in the form of a sound when the amplitude and frequency of the corresponding rhythms are within the established individual range. As shown by numerous experiments, a person can relatively quickly master the ability to adjust his own electrical activity in accordance with the given parameters.
It was also shown that biofeedback can be used not only to maintain and increase alpha activity on the EEG over the entire surface of the brain, but also when the inter-hemispheric ratios change in terms of alpha rhythm. Thus, the subjects were asked to try to determine the presence of asymmetry in their own bioelectrical brain activity and to enhance its severity using biological feedback. Subjects, focusing on the sound signal informing them about the degree of prevalence of the alpha rhythm in the right hemisphere, according to the instructions, arbitrarily supported one or another state of EEG asymmetry. In the majority of subjects, the asymmetry changed only due to a relative increase or decrease in the alpha rhythm while maintaining the original tendency to dominate the alpha rhythm on the right. There is evidence that some people are able to distinguish the nature and severity of their own EEG asymmetry.
Благоприятным фактором для регуляции альфа-ритма оказалось отсутствие критико-аналитического отношения к среде и к себе. Было также отмечено, что те испытуемые, которые хорошо представляют себе, что такое образы и сновидения, т.е. чьи образные компоненты мышления выражены достаточно ярко, обучаются особенно эффективно усиливать альфа-ритм. Именно эти субъекты обнаруживают большие способности к медитации и интуитивному постижению проблемы.
Электрокожная (ЭК) обратная связь. Основу для этого варианта обратной связи составляет электрическая активность кожи (см. тему 2 п. 2.2). Наиболее часто встречающимся индикатором обратной связи служат преобразованные в доступную для восприятия форму сопротивление и проводимость кожи. Поскольку изменения электрических характеристик кожи являются функцией симпатической нервной системы, то с помощью ЭК человек обучается регулировать уровень активации симпатического отдела вегетативной нервной системы.
Комплексная обратная связь основана на сочетании двух или более видов обратной связи из числа описанных выше, например, одновременно с ЭЭГ-обратной связью можно применять ЭМГ-обратную связь. Последнее позволяет человеку более дифференцированно и эффективно осуществлять регуляцию соответствующих психофизиологических показателей и функциональных состояний организма.
Значение обратной связи особенно ярко иллюстрируют исследования с отставлением информации о результатах выполнения действия.
Задержка обратной связи. Впервые этот экспериментальный прием использовал американский исследователь В. Ли. С помощью двойного звукозаписывающего устройства он фиксировал речь испытуемого и подавал ее обратно с помощью электрического преобразователя через наушники, которые препятствовали непосредственному восприятию испытуемым своей речи. Такая система позволяла создавать задержки между речевыми движениями испытуемого и звуковой обратной связью от этих движений. Задержки около 0,2 секунд вызывали у испытуемых радикальное нарушение речи — заикание, паузы, ошибки и в ряде случаев полное ее прекращение. Эти факты убедительно свидетельствуют, насколько важно человеку для правильного проговаривания слышать свою собственную речь.
Описаны эффекты задержек обратной связи и для других видов деятельности человека, таких как письмо, рисование, пение, управление позой и движениями головы и др. Показано, что задержка сенсорной обратной связи снижает организацию и эффективность всех движений тела, при этом наблюдается ухудшение точностных, временных и интегративных характеристик всех сенсомоторных механизмов. Так, в частности, уже после нескольких минут участия в экспериментах с звуковой задержкой профессиональные музыканты (пианисты, скрипачи, виолончелисты, флейтисты) полностью отказывались от участия в дальнейших экспериментах, поскольку они сразу обнаружили, что подобный эксперимент разрушает навыки игры. В различных экспериментах с применением компьютера было показано, что задержка зрительной обратной связи от движений глаз ухудшает все виды глазодвигательной активности при прослеживании.
Значение обратной связи в организации движения. Можно предположить, следовательно, что независимо от того, какие нейронные механизмы участвуют в процессах формирования двигательного навыка, тот факт, что даже небольшие нарушения нормальных временных и/или пространственных параметров обратной связи вызывают существенное ухудшение двигательных навыков, моторной деятельности и обучения, позволяет предположить наличие тесных взаимосвязей между периферическим мотосенсорным и центральными механизмами регуляции динамики движений (см. тему 10 п. 10.3).
Therapeutic value of artificial feedback. The problem of biofeedback is one of the most important in studying the interaction of the psyche and the body. As an experimental method, artificial feedback allows one to study the ways in which the human brain "conducts" various functions of the "mind-body" system. There are also therapeutic aspects of the use of artificial feedback, when, based on the information received, a person seeks to improve his functional state.
One of the conditions for successful application of feedback in the clinic is the degree of cognitive restructuring of external and internal information perceived by a person, as a result of which he begins to more effectively evaluate ways of interaction between the brain and body.
There are numerous data suggesting that if there is relevant information based on feedback, a person can learn to change such functions of his body that were previously considered inaccessible for conscious control, for example, the degree of muscular tension, alpha rhythm size, skin temperature, heart rate activity, etc. The practical application of feedback is directly related to the regulation of the state of overvoltage of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system in order to izheniya its undesirable consequences for the organism.
Describe the importance of an integrated approach to the study of functional states.
The functional state is the background activity of the nervous system under which these or other behavioral acts of animals and humans are realized.
The emergence of the possibility of multiple registration of psychophysiological indicators (EEG, heart rate, EMG, respiratory movements, etc.) led to an understanding of functional states as a complex of behavioral manifestations that accompany various aspects of human activity and behavior.
From the standpoint of a systematic approach, functional states are the result of a dynamic interaction of an organism with the external environment and reflect the state of an “organized” whole. According to this logic, a functional state is an integral complex of the available characteristics of those qualities and properties of the human body that directly or indirectly determine its activity.
A change in functional states is a change from one set of reactions to another, all of which are interrelated and provide a more or less adequate body behavior in the environment. According to this logic, the diagnosis of functional states is associated with the task of recognizing a multidimensional vector, the components of which are various physiological indicators and reactions.
It is clear that the increase in the number of components of this vector, i.e. involvement in the analysis of an increasing number of indicators and reactions, as well as their various combinations, leads to even greater granularity and difficulty analyzing the functional state. However, it is positive that each functional state is characterized by its own unique combination of indicators and reactions (a single-valued multidimensional vector). At the same time, no set of indicators, even if strictly ordered and unique, makes it possible to reveal the essence of a specific functional state, since it always turns out to be only an external description and enumeration lacking a meaningful characteristic that is most important for understanding the essence of the functional state.
Test_Data [0] = new Array ("Is it true that the essence of the response to a stressor is the activation of all body systems necessary to overcome the 'obstacles' and return the body to normal conditions of existence?", ".. \ 3.html # p24, no, yes, 0.1, 0.0); Test_Data [1] = new Array ("Is it true that the frontal areas of the cortex in the descending cortico-reticular pathways modulate the activity of the stem and thalamic systems?", ".. \ 3.html # p8", "no", "yes" , 0.1, 0.0); Test_Data [2] = new Array ("Is it true that in babies in the first weeks of life about 50% of all sleep is paradoxical sleep?", ".. \ 3.html # p19", "no", "yes", 1.0, 0.0); Test_Data [3] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. Functional state is:", ".. \ 3.html # p1", "state associated with the use of mental functions", "mental functions considered from the standpoint of ethology "," the systemic response of the organism, ensuring its adequacy to the requirements of the activity "," specific response of the organism, ensuring its adequacy to the requirements of the activity ", 0,0,1,0, 0,0,0,0); Test_Data [4] = new Array (" Choose two correct answers. In the neural support of functional states, the body systems play the leading role:", ".. \ 3.html # p3", "brain stem reticular formation", "cerebellum", "cerebral cortex", "limbic system", 1,0,0,1, 0,0,0,0); Test_Data [5] = new Array (" Choose two correct answer options. Reticular formation of the brain:", ".. \ 3.html # p5", "receives afferent impulsation from its sensory pathways surrounding it", "is a network of nerve cells in the middle part of the trunk, "is a network of nerve cells in the lower part of the trunk," "is the formation of the neocortex", 1,1,0,0, 0,0,0,0); Test_Data [6] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. The pacemaker as a morpho-functional formation responsible for generating rhythmic activity and spreading synchronized effects on extensive areas of the cortex is in:", ".. \ 3.html # p6 "," brainstem "," center of thalamus "," hypothalamus "," amygdala ", 0,1,0,0, 0,0,0,0); Test_Data [7] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. Monophasic is a dream that:", ".. \ 3.html # p13", "is dedicated to the daily change of day and night", "does not have a fast sleep phase" , "manifested in somnolepsii", "characterizes the hibernation of animals", 1,0,0,0, 0,0,0,0); Test_Data [8] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. Brain modulating systems include:", ".. \ 3.html # p14", "reticular formation and limbic system", "pyramidal and extrapyramidal system", "sympathetic and the parasympathetic system "," neocortex structure ", 1.0.0.0, 0.0.0.0); Test_Data [9] = new Array (" Choose four correct answers. Types of sleep include:", ".. \ 3.html # p15", "seasonal", "narcotic", "daily", "hypnotic", " pathological ", 1,1,0,1,1, 0,0,0,0,0); Test_Data [10] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. Periods of rapid sleep eye movements occur:", ".. \ 3.html # p18", "at 40-minute intervals and last about 20 minutes", "from 90 -minute intervals and continue for about 10 minutes "," with 90-minute intervals and continue for about 20 minutes "," with 20-minute intervals and continue for about 90 minutes ", 0,0,1,0, 0,0,0, 0); Test_Data [11] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. During perception, thresholds of perception increase:", ".. \ 3.html # p20", "during the BDG stage - by 400%, at other stages by 30 40% "," during the BDG stage - by 100%, at other stages by 30-40%, "" during the BDG stage - by 400%, at other stages by 200-300% "," during the BDG stage - at 100%, at other stages at 150-200% ", 1,0,0,0, 0,0,0,0); Test_Data [12] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. Slow sleep performs the functions:", ".. \ 3.html # p22", "resource recovery", "maintain the internal environment constancy", "information processing", " release from stress ", 1,0,0,0, 0,0,0,0); Test_Data [13] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. The term 'stress \' was introduced by Hans Selye in:", ".. \ 3.html # p23", "1919 g", "1929 g", " 1939 g "," 1949 g ", 0.1.0.0, 0.0.0.0); Test_Data [14] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. Specify which endocrine glands are primarily involved in the development of reactions to stress:", ".. \ 3.html # p25", "thyroid", "adrenal glands" , "thymus (thymus)", "pituitary", "pancreas", 0,1,0,0,0, 0,0,0,0,0); Test_Data [15] = new Array (" Choose three correct answer choices. There are such basic \ 'endocrine axes \' that are involved in the stress response of a person, like:", ".. \ 3.html # p28", "adrenaline cortical, somatotropic, thyroid, basal-stem, 1,1,1,0, 0,0,0,0); Test_Data [16] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. Book by M. Friedman and R. Rosenman \ 'Behavior of A-type and your heart \' went out to:", ".. \ 3.html # p30", " 1954, 1974, 1994, 1979, 0.1.0.0, 0.0.0.0); Test_Data [17] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. The term \ 'homeostasis \' was proposed by V. Kennon in:", ".. \ 3.html # p34", "1932 g", "1923 g", “1935 g”, “1953 g”, 1.0.0.0, 0.0.0.0); Test_Data [18] = new Array (" Choose the correct answer. Translation of information about the state of individual body systems into a form accessible for perception and changing on this basis the state of these systems in the right direction is:", ".. \ 3.html # p36 "," reverse afferentation "," artificial feedback "," meditation technique "," hypnosis ", 0.1.0.0, 0.0.0.0);
Часть 1 3. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF FUNCTIONAL STATES
Часть 2 3.4. Pain and its physiological mechanisms - 3. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF
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Psychophysiology
Terms: Psychophysiology