5.3.0. - The Concept of Syntactics. The Syntactics of the

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Polyphonic music played a special role in the development of other art forms – music in which the musical fabric is saturated with events to the highest degree, possesses a compacted semantics of the sub-sign layer and, correspondingly, a weakened structural rigor (especially in vocal polyphony 37). These features of polyphonic thinking passed, at the end of the 19th century and later, into the artistic fabric of literature, theater, cinema, and even animation /Bakhtin 1972; Rappaport, 72-73/. B. L. Yavorsky compares Taneyev, who possessed "polyphonic, that is, a manifold simultaneous-successive capturing of massiveness," to such artists as Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy, and Surikov /Yavorsky 1987, 64/. 38

5.3.0.

As shown in the diagram /T. 5.3.0.0., fig. 4/, the problem of pragmatics in art has two sides, two vectors of action. One is directed from the world and the creator toward the work/sign; the second – from the work/sign toward society and the individual consumer – the reader, listener, viewer. And while the second vector, as an object of study, belongs to the sphere of sociology and the psychology of perception, the first must be examined in the present study, for, besides the psychology of creativity and poetics, it falls within the purview of both aesthetics and a little-explored angle of semiotics. The fact is that in most cases pragmatics as a branch of semiotics has been considered within the framework of art, as a rule, one-sidedly – in its sociological aspect, touching only one level: signs and their consumers. This should come as no surprise: "For texts with indeterminate semantics, for which interpretation in terms of truth proves inapplicable, the context of use, i.e. the pragmatic aspect, becomes especially important" /Lekomtseva 1987, 249; emphasis mine. – M.B./.

The category of truth/falsity in its elementary sense is inapplicable to art in principle; art, unlike applied science, does not serve purely utilitarian purposes. This is why the problem of use (perception, consumption) has crowded out other aspects of pragmatics in art. This is evidenced by certain semiotic-linguistic definitions in which the sphere of pragmatics is unjustifiably narrowed: "Pragmatics is concerned with the study of speech acts and the contexts in which they are realized" /Stalnaker, 423/. Applied to art (in particular, to music), such a definition implies a clear bias toward use (consumption) and toward the study of the conditions (contexts) in which it takes place (this includes the level of training of performers and listeners, the venues in which the music is played, the tastes of the public, the social context, and so on). In the overwhelming majority of studies, it is precisely these factors that are the leading and priority ones for pragmatics (sometimes this complex of questions is called the problem of realizing the communicative function of music). 39

Meanwhile, the full definition of pragmatics as the most important component of the systemic-semiotic approach is significantly broader, for it includes within the scope of study not only consumers but everyone who uses signs, and, consequently, first and foremost, those who create them. The relegation of this vector to the periphery of pragmatics as a science is explainable by the fact that in the main object of semiotics – natural verbal language – the figure of the sign’s creator is absent: linguistic signs are not created (with the rarest of exceptions), they are only used /T. 1.2.3.3./. In art, however, every sign is a creation that has not only a consumer but, as a rule, also a creator. Therefore pragmatics, as a component of the semiotics of art, must include within its orbit of attention the relationships between signs and their creators as well.

As it seems, the central questions in this case turn out to be the following: a) what is the place of the creator in the work of art/sign they have created; b) what does the "world" appear as in this creation; and, finally, c) in what way are the relations between the authorial "I" and the "world", which is enclosed within this "I", or in which this "I" dwells, represented in the work.

Even with regard to verbal art forms, only very few researchers have recognized this problem specifically as a problem of pragmatics (among them is Yu. S. Stepanov, who, in particular, substantiated the pragmatic aspect of Akhmatova’s lyric poetry or Proust’s novel, believing that "in this art everything relates to the speaking poet and his "I"" /Stepanov Yu. 1985, 222/). 40

Naturally, pragmatics considered in this aspect intersects with the doctrine of the genera of art – the lyric, the epic, the drama. It is precisely from this angle that the problem of the authorial "I" and the "world" reflected in the work turns out to be central. Such it is in Aristotle’s "Poetics": one may imitate "by narrating the event as something separate from oneself, as Homer does, or in such a way that the imitator remains himself, without changing his persona, or by representing all the depicted persons as acting and active" /Aristotle 1957, 45/. 41

Despite all the modifications that such an approach has undergone subsequently, and regardless of the terms used (imitator, author, narrator, subject), it is precisely the relationship between the "world" and the place that the creator has allotted to the image of the "author", that is – in however mediated a form – to their own person, that determines the generic features of a given work of art. 42 And yet, despite the long history that the category of genre has passed through in the science of art, perhaps M. S. Kagan is right in asserting that this category "does not yet exist in aesthetics. This category is operated on by poetics..., while in the morphological analysis of the entire sphere of artistic activity the concept of "genre" entered only in those cases when... the division of poetry into epic, lyric, and dramatic became a device for the internal division of all other art forms" /Kagan 1972, 391/.

Judging by musical art, there reigns a considerable disagreement here. Generic divisions as a whole have still not become the subject of special study 43 and, probably, have not become so precisely because it was not entirely clear – which particular aspect of a musical work they represent. Sometimes the generic features of a work are regarded as almost identical to genre features /Starcheus, 48-49, 56/, or even as a component of genre structure /Aranovsky 1987, 23-24/; doubt is expressed about the adequacy of using such concepts as epic, lyric, drama /Chernova 1984/; or else, applied to music, they are granted only "a purely metaphorical sense" /Kagan 1972, 404/, and it is proposed to replace them with the following categories: program, absolute and dance music /ibid., 403-404/. The most significant group of authors insists on music’s constitutive belonging, as a whole, solely and exclusively to the lyric genus of art /Aranovsky 1987, 19; Hegel 1981, 201; Zoltai, 84; Medushevsky 1980g, 44; Medushevsky 1985, 68; Mundt, 221; Orlova 1982, 214; and others/. M. S. Kagan believes that "the lyric became "music in literature," or literature that took upon itself the laws of music" /Kagan 1972, 394/.

At the same time, these same authors understand and hear perfectly well that music actually goes beyond the bounds of the lyric and that all the genera of art are subject to it. V. Medushevsky, for example, speaks of the all-encompassing cathartic effect of "wondrous music, manifesting itself both in the lyric, and in the drama, and in the epic" /Medushevsky 1986, 69/, and M. Aranovsky believes that "drama and epic arise in music as if layered atop its primordial lyrical nature" /Aranovsky 1987, 19/. 44

It makes sense to look more closely at each of the three genres in order to extrapolate these considerations into the sphere of the pragmatics of musical art.

With regard to epic - from Aristotle to Joyce - there is complete unanimity on the question of the position of the authorial "I": "the artist, like the god of creation, remains within, behind, beyond, or above his handiwork, invisible, refined out of existence, indifferent..." (Joyce) /see: Frank, 202/. 45 The situation is different when it comes to time, as it unfolds in epic. A. Potebnya regards epic as perfectum - a distant past that has lost its topicality, and therefore, he believes, the tone of epic narration is calm /Potebnya, 449/; Goethe and Schiller note the temporal freedom, the possibility for the author to move through time in all directions, for "its (the epic's - M.B.) final goal is already contained in every point of its movement; therefore we do not rush impatiently toward the goal, but lovingly linger at every step" /Goethe-Schiller, 250, 258-259; emphasis mine - M.B./. While these considerations are entirely valid, there is also a somewhat different position which, from a historical point of view, may be more accurate: "... In mythological consciousness, the human lot does not yet appear as a necessity to live in time. This circumstance is reflected in Homeric epic in the form of an absolute predominance of the present instant. Even in cases where the "prehistory" of a "present" event is narrated, what opens before us is only a "preceding present"" /Barg, 44/. This approach, in essence, unites the existing conceptions of time in epic into a single system of views.

In drama there is no narrator at all; he is "dissolved" among all the characters and cannot act as an "intermediary between spectator and event" /Potebnya, 450/. This is why the effect of "self-movement," the self-unfolding of the initial impulse, is important for drama - an unfolding that simply cannot fail to occur owing to an equilibrium once disturbed (i.e., at the moment of the impulse) /Chernova 1984, 26, 28, 32/. The flow of time must "coincide" with real time, for the illusion of the authenticity of what is happening acquires decisive significance (something epic does not claim to the same degree). Therefore "the plot time of a dramatic work unfolds from past to future, in principle steadily and purposefully" /ibid., 28/. 46 To this, however, an important consideration should be added. Since in drama time flows as it does in real life (albeit, of course, more concentrated), the spectator (reader, listener) in drama, too, is at every given moment constantly under the sway of the present, which, admittedly, immediately recedes into the past, giving way to a new present.

And finally, lyric poetry - a genre in which the authorial "I" dominates, constrained neither by the surrounding world nor by plot ("... and even when it is a matter of other things and persons, this is not a view from outside, but a view from within..."/ Kovtunova 1986b, 17/), nor even by the addressee to whom the speech is directed ("a conversation with oneself" /ibid., 40; Kovtunova 1986a, 100-101/). 47 The time of lyric is praesens, the present; past and future are visible only insofar as they matter now /Potebnya, 448/; "the "eternal instant," the "arrested moment" - these are the symbols of the lyrical" /Chernova 1984, 28/; "a lyric poem is characterized by a path from the "new" to the "newest"" /Kovtunova 1986b, 153/.

In the end, one can state that the differences between epic, drama, and lyric are differences in the position of the authorial "I," as well as in the nature of the flow of the present tense: in drama it is "only an instant between past and future," while in epic and lyric it "spreads out" over the entire work (which brings these two genres closer together).

Before turning to a characterization of the principal pragmatic properties of musical speech, in which the generic features of epic, drama, and lyric are embodied, one more circumstance must be noted. The generic features listed above appear in pure form far from always. Even the epoch of Romanticism violates all the canons of normative aesthetics (and poetics), including the previously established generic boundaries. But insofar as we are speaking of musical art, one must remember that, unlike verbal creation, it does not have as extensive a history reflected in recorded, precisely reproducible (recoverable) text-facts of artistic musical culture. The music of the European tradition, as listened to, studied, and performed, is situated within a comparatively small time span - from Gregorian chant to the present day. If we speak of works that are at the epicenter of the listener's thesaurus, this period shrinks even further - to two or three centuries, of which music has already been unconnected with normative aesthetics for a century and a half. Therefore, the music in question allows for a freer use of mixed genres, and characterizations of it such as "lyrico-epic dramaturgy" /Nazaykinsky 1987b, 154/ should not be perceived as an oxymoron. 48

5.3.1. - 5.3.5.

The brief analysis above of the three principal genres of art has made it possible to identify a property that makes their existence in musical art possible - the dominance in each of them of the present tense. Without the realization of this condition, these genres could in no way come into being in music, for music, to a far greater extent than any other form of creation, acts upon the listener hinc et nunc (here and now), and outside of such an effect it is in principle unthinkable. 49

Fulfilling only this condition, however, would not be sufficient: what is needed, first-ly, is a clear differentiation of the "poles" of meaning - "author" and "world" - through whose interaction the picture of the universe characteristic of each genre of art is established; and, second, the present tense in epic and lyric unfolds in a quite distinctive manner, and music, in its own unfolding, must reflect these specific qualities. The fulfillment of the first condition is ensured by the semantics of the sub-sign layer, and of the second - by the syntactic properties of musical speech. 50

The influence of semantics on the pragmatic aspects of a musical text is ensured by its ability to characterize a collective (objective) or individual (subjective) type of "hero-character" of musical speech. As musical practice shows, a task of this kind is among the simplest, and for the creator, as well as for the perceiving person, it is not difficult to create/perceive music as a reflection of the group, collective, or subjective, personal facets of the real world. There exists a significant number of genres associated with collective actions (from work songs, dance songs, round-dance songs to marches, chorales, and the like); the circle of accompanying "expressive means" (khD) associated with them is even wider (accented rhythmics, certain types of texture, a vividly manifested functionality of harmonic logic, in a word, "the characteristic principle of the broad stroke, alien to fractional detailing" /Volynsky, 158/). And, on the other hand, no less potential belongs to the semantics associated with the individual person, his subjective world-sense, and the manner of self-expression peculiar to him (from lament and keening - to the most complex genres in which solo utterances are cultivated: recitatives, improvisations, arias, songs, and the accompanying expressive means associated with them). 51 The composer has at his disposal the richest semantic palette, which allows him not only to use some ready-made "colors of paint", but also to create entirely new ones, never before existing, while still having unconditional grounds to count on the comprehensibility and accessibility of all these blends and combinations.

The polarization of the semantics of the sub-sign layer is connected with two generic principles — the lyric and the epic. The lyric relies on genres and chronotopes of individual utterances, the epic — on collective ones. This does not mean an exclusive presence within the bounds of a given semantics, but in any case a dominance of one or another group of genres (and/or the chronotope associated with them). 52 Drama fundamentally presupposes the participation of both genre conglomerations — subjective (since a sense of personal engagement is necessary) and objective (creating a broad figurative panorama, the background of dramatic action); moreover, their interaction plays an important role — ranging from conjugation to extremely rigid forms of juxtaposition. On the whole, these characteristics exhaust the basic regularities of the relationship between semantics and pragmatics.

Special consideration is required for the connection that is realized between syntactics and pragmatics.

The syntactic properties of the lyric are characterized above all by a relatively small scale of action, within which it is easier to realize the effect of a "stopped moment". This effect is conditioned by the unity of the "character" — an emotional effect, an experience ("a portrait of a state," as Nazaikinsky writes /Nazaikinsky 1982, 245/), i.e. monologicity, which should be understood as the absence of interaction between different "characters". 53 It is quite natural that remaining within such limited bounds, even taking into account the possibilities of significant internal development — in other words, within the limits of conjugation that does not lead to semantic renewal of the material — cannot continue for a significant length of time and is more characteristic of a miniature or a work of medium scale. Therefore, first, the attainment of a broad scale is connected with the whole going beyond the bounds of the lyric, and second, the dominance of the lyric in works of large form, which is nevertheless observed at a certain historical stage of music's development, is connected with the lyric's conquest of spheres of music-making originally distant from it: the sonata-symphonic cycle and opera (the 19th century).

The Theses examine in sufficient detail the specific features of the syntactics of these structures, caused by the dominant role of the lyrical principle in them /T. 5.3.2.2.; 5.3.3.3./. Therefore, here one may confine oneself to a brief commentary on what has been said. The essence of these features lies in the considerably larger scale of closed/relatively closed constructions than was accepted in the work of the classics. Each of them represents a "lyrical monologue" (in the sense indicated earlier). These constructions, of course, correspond with one another; their connections may be contact-based or distant (arch-like), forming a kind of "plot" — not in the sense of action (fabula), but rather as the lyrical experience of that action, which nevertheless occupies a subordinate place in relation to the main thing in the lyric — the portrayal of a state. 54

Unlike the lyric, the epic is characterized precisely by scale, extensiveness, and, moreover, by slowness, an unhurried unfolding. Like the lyric, it too is characterized by a rejection of active action, of clashes and conflicts. "...The Attic orchestra," wrote Vyach. Ivanov, "knows no duel, or pursuit, or slaying: it is the messengers' task to report everything externally active among the choreutes and actors..." /Ivanov Vyach. Iv., 250/ — and this about drama, about tragedy. Hence a certain external closeness between the syntactics of the lyric and the epic, connected with the predominance of closed sections and their juxtaposition over a through dramaturgical action and conflict. However, the internal structure of such sections in the epic is completely different from that in the lyric. The "monologicity" of lyrical "scenes" (miniatures, sections) is connected with the development of a single affect, state, etc. In the epic, on the other hand, development is reduced to a minimum, being replaced by the most varied variants of exposition and re-exposition (repetition, variation with decorative and substantial changes). 55 Hence the comparison characteristic of the epic in music with "picturesqueness": like a picture that can be examined, peering many times into every detail, a significant musical space unfolds before the listener, offering nevertheless the same (or a very close) material for the same repeated "examining"-listening, in different "lighting", from different angles, but always unhurriedly, as V. Bobrovsky says, in an "even dramaturgical tempo" /Bobrovsky 1978, 68/. 56

The epic is removed from immediate experience; it does not admit alternatives: for it everything is permissible, everything can be combined, 57 for this is such a present in relation to which a psychological distance arises. Perhaps it is precisely for this reason that Y. Jiranek considers that "epic narration is least characteristic of music" /Jiranek 1988, 127/. One cannot agree with this unconditionally. Of course, a certain distance does exist: the "characters" and "events" of the epic stir one directly less than in the lyric or drama. But their place is taken by admiration for detail (let us recall Goethe and Schiller: "we lovingly linger at every step"), enjoyment of unhurriedness, immersion in the elevated flow of objective meditation — and this happens to the listener hinc et nunc — not for nothing were Schubert's so-called longueurs called "divine".

In symphonic music the epic became established at the same historical stage as the lyric. 58 With opera matters were more complicated /T. 5.3.3.2./. The concept substantiated in the Theses, the essence of which lies in recognizing opera seria as a phenomenon belonging predominantly to the epic genus, is corroborated by concrete studies in this area /Rytsarev, 10, 15–16/, but had not previously been examined from the perspective of pragmatics. 59 Nevertheless, however one evaluates this fact, epic opera is not simply a musical-dramatic work on an epic subject, but a work in which the basic laws of drama are deformed, in which display and presentation dominate over action, where what is required of the viewer (listener) is not so much empathy as attentive listening, gazing, admiring the material presented. It is precisely this circumstance that has caused many misunderstandings in the historical fate of this opera. 60

The syntactics of drama, like that of the epic, is connected predominantly with large form, in which the interaction of "characters" (no fewer than two) requires a scale sufficient for the exposition, the action proper, and the denouement. 61 Nevertheless, drama can also be realized within a small scale, thanks to the ability of the musical fabric to acquire enormous density, saturation with events, and, correspondingly, the possibility of concentrating the action in a small space.

Having arisen in connection with the theater (dramma per musica), this genus spread to all other forms of music-making and, during the period of the Viennese classics' work, dominated almost undividedly (the last bastion of the epic — religious-cult music — even it, despite resistance, underwent the influence of "dramatization" and "theatricality"; the best testimony to this is Mozart's "Requiem"). 62 Therefore most of the typical structures of instrumental music, formed and crystallized precisely in the era of Viennese classicism – from the ternary form to the sonata form – are permeated with the idea of drama and, in essence, were called into being precisely by it. 63

Lyric, epic, and drama alike, in their origin, development, and culminating moments, are linked to particular historical periods. 64 In particular, most historical materials and the very facts of musical culture – musical works – attest to the predominance of epic works in the output of ars antiqua composers.

This is conditioned by the entire structure of medieval mentality and culture. Both were determined by the relation to God – the absolute pole of attraction of spiritual aspirations. In this case a wholly special sense of time arises: "the absolute past – the sacred moments of biblical history – does not recede...; the absolute future – the end of the world – does not draw nearer with the passage of time, for the Kingdom of God may break into the present at any moment" /Gurevich, 133; emphasis mine. - M.B./. That is, sacred time is present time, and "the eleventh-century crusaders were convinced that they were punishing not the descendants of the Savior's executioners, but those very executioners themselves. Past centuries meant nothing to them" /ibid., 118/. And, on the other hand, "it is not the passage of time that leads to its consummation – the coming of Christ – but divine providence" /ibid., 133/. And the time of Christian statehood was conceived in the same way: "the present is arrested, the future is not quite the future, for in a certain ideal plan it is given as already accomplished now, but the past too is not quite the past, for it is presumed to possess the semantic content of the present and the future" /Averintsev 1977, 99; emphasis mine. - M.B./ – and therefore "passing time ... is replaced by the standing present of the liturgy /ibid./, and, consequently, "medieval time is predominantly ... epic" /Gurevich, 96; emphasis mine. - M.B./. 65

Equally insensory, devoid of a center of attraction for the viewer, was sacred space: "A picture presupposes the presence not of a single sole viewpoint, but of several or many points of observation. ... Space is not segmented or measured by the individual's perception. ...it does not "draw" the viewer into itself, but "pushes" him out of itself" /ibid., 80/. The space of the medieval world represents "a closed system with sacred centers and a secular periphery" /ibid., 82/, in which there is no "far" and "near", for God is equally both far and near to any point of the continuum.

Such a perception-sense of the chronotope could not but affect music, which in the overwhelming majority of professional examples was connected with the church. "Music unfolds in time as an acoustic phenomenon, such is the nature of its existence, but the image created by Gregorian chant excludes any notion of physical motion, of empirical time" /Pritykina 1978, 96/; "singing is generated by a verbal text, forming with it a syncretic unity, directed, like the entire ritual, toward contemplative immersion in the transcendent ideas of Christian singing /Gerasimova-Persidskaya, 89/.

As G. Orlov believes, the disregard of space and time persisted even in the work of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century composers – G. de Machaut, Dufay, Ockeghem, Obrecht, and so on. One of the signs of this is the free spatio-temporal use of the theme: "Themes are stated not only in direct motion, but also in retrograde, "crab-wise": the sequence of "events" becomes mirrored, cause and effect, the preceding and the following seemingly change places, the irreversibility of time ... disappears" /Orlov 1972, 380/.

As for the semantics of the sub-sign layer, it is determined by the choral melos – in Asafiev's words, "the intoning ... of the "collective soul"" /Asafiev 1971, 316/. 66 True, Augustine's works contain an enthusiastic description of jubilations – expressions of individual states of the soul (anima affectus) /Bychkov, 195/, and, on the other hand, A. Gurevich, while noting the epic character of chivalric spiritual culture as a whole, speaks of the lyricism of chivalric poetry /Gurevich, 85/. However, regardless of these centrifugal tendencies, music was above all a "symbol of the spirit poured out over the faithful" /quoted in: Zoltai, 96/, and this property of it is present in most genres of professional ars antiqua music. 67 The stratification of this single stream begins with the emergence of polyphony, although at first it is of a purely phonic character 68 and only prepares the ground for the appearance of several "characters". However, "every change of worldview paradigms, even on a universal scale, begins with a slight and barely noticeable shift of emphasis" /Barg, 292/.

Of course, the most important events that led to ars nova, and subsequently to the birth of opera, took place above all in the sphere of the spirit, in the sphere of relations between the creator-composer and the world. "...The process of the individualization of personality, beginning with forms of land use and family structure and ending with the sphere of spiritual creation, put an end to the anonymity so characteristic of the Middle Ages. The Renaissance tore man away from the umbilical cord of the "group" and endowed him with individual traits. ...Subjectivity ceased to be ashamed of itself" /ibid., 238/.

The sense of time changes: "for medieval man time was unhurriedly flowing, "epic", for Renaissance man the awareness of the brevity of "personal" time, flowing against the backdrop of an accelerated social time, gives rise to his dramatically tense experience of it..." /Pritykina 1978, 97; emphasis mine. - M.B./. Of course, this does not mean that ars nova immediately abandons the epic vision of time and yields the palm to drama. Both G. Orlov's above-cited observation on the music of the fourteenth-fifteenth centuries, and some of the judgments about the art of Palestrina 69 attest that music as an art of action had not yet awakened in this era: "The ars nova of the twelfth-fourteenth centuries was, in relation to ars antiqua, a progressive "secular" movement, but together with ars antiqua this practice was still not liberated from rhythmic-intonational traditions, i.e. ars nova too is not quite music yet" /Asafiev 1971, 312/. And yet "in the bright field of consciousness" of composers there already appear both realities of the earthly extramusical world (through the sonic "periphery" – sound imitations, etc.), and portrait sketches (in virginal literature).

And in Gesualdo's work the complex of expressive means grows sharply more acute: sharp chromaticized intonations, dissonant harmonies (clusters of seconds), juxtapositions and interactions of distant chords, and so on – all this leads to a sharpening of contrast, and, consequently, to the isolation of contrasting elements /Kazaryan/, which are destined to perform the function of "dramatis personae" in the future drama in music. Gesualdo, as this same author believes, laid "the conflictual exposition of musical action" /ibid., 27/. And dramatic action becomes fully realized already in the dramma per musica of the Florentine camerata /Rytsarev, 8/; it reaches its culminating development and the highest point of the realization of its possibilities in the interrelation of opera and symphony, in the development of the sonata-symphony cycle – from its initial stages to the art of the Viennese classicists /Aranovsky 1979b, 14-26/.

The 19th century brought, as already mentioned, the lyric and the epic into the large forms of musical art. The first of these genera initially became established on its own territory - in the vocal and instrumental miniature, and then (in fact, almost simultaneously) its expansion into the sonata and symphony began (Schubert), and only afterward - into opera. The epic first "occupies" the symphony (sonata) and somewhat later, on an entirely new basis (compared with opera seria), regains its lost positions in opera. 70

Romanticism, "casting off one prohibition after another" /Bernstein, 238/, leads to a fusion of generic types both in literature ("the fusion of the lyrical with the dramatic" /Terterian, 175 and further/) and in musical art - again, initially in instrumental music, after which such interaction of the artistic genera also becomes possible in opera. One of the first Russian operas in which all three genera - lyric, drama, and epic - occupy a fairly significant place is Tchaikovsky's "The Queen of Spades" - a work whose multilayered nature allows one to speak of the "polyphony" of its dramaturgy. 71 In the 20th century such an approach to resolving the problem of generic features in operatic and ballet dramaturgy became widespread. 72 However, even today there exist musical strata in which their generic affiliation is quite clearly marked. Say, Shostakovich's oeuvre proved to be closer to the "dramatic culture of thinking" /Starcheus, 57/, for dramatism is characteristic not only of his symphonies and chamber ensembles, but penetrates even into the miniature (this author's thesis about the epic character of Stravinsky's thinking is less convincing; rather, in this sense one could speak of Prokofiev).

The material presented thus shows that musical art, throughout its history, has been connected not only with the categories of genre (KhD), form (structure), but also bore the imprint of genus: epic, lyric, drama. All these factors - semantics, syntactics, and pragmatics - represent a manifestation of the typical in the musical fabric, and, taken both individually and collectively, are realized in their concrete manifestation as essential components of the overall meaning of each musical work.

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Продолжение:

Часть 1 The Concept of Syntactics. The Syntactics of the Literary Text and the Problems of Syntactics
Часть 2 5.3.0. - The Concept of Syntactics. The Syntactics of the