Lecture
Marriage (Greek γάμος - marriage; derived from the verb to take [1]), or marital union , matrimony - regulated by society and, in most states, registered in the relevant state bodies of the family connection between people who have reached the age of marriage, giving rise to their rights and obligations in relation to each other [2], and also, if a couple have children, also to children. Traditionally, marriage is between one man and one woman. In some states, marriage can be concluded between a man and several women (polygyny), less often between a woman and several men (polyandry). In some countries, marriages can also be between two persons of the same sex (same-sex marriages). A man in marriage is called a husband or spouse, a woman is called a wife or spouse (men who are not married are called unmarried or single; women who are not married are called unmarried).
For a marriage, it is necessary that the marriageable age be established by the legislation of the country. In many societies, there is a ban on closely related marriages. In some countries there are some other restrictions on marriage. Marriage enjoys protection and patronage of laws only when it is concluded in compliance with the established conditions and entails certain legal consequences in the field of personal and property rights and obligations of the spouses in relation to each other and to children.
The wedding silver ruble of Nicholas I is a combination of the heir to the throne, Alexander Nikolayevich. 1841
Marriage under duress. (caricature of the early 20th century)
it is a term used to describe a marriage, in which one or both parties married without his or her consent or against his or her will with the assistance of their parents or a third party (matchmaker) in the selection of a spouse, although the difference between the last two may be insignificant. The practice of forced marriage was very common among the upper class in Europe until the 20th century, and it is still found in some parts of Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. Forced marriages in the West are arranged mainly for immigrants from these countries. In almost all marriages, the bride (less often the groom) becomes a wife not voluntarily. The UN sees coercive marriages as a form of human rights violation, since they do not comply with the principle of human freedom and independence. The Roman Catholic Church believes that the reason for making a marriage decision invalid is quite weighty - for the reality of marriage, both parties must give their consent freely, without pressure from outside. Historically, forced marriage was arranged in order to demand from the prisoner (slave or prisoner of war) to merge with the society of stay, and accept his or her destiny. One example is the English blacksmith John R. Jewitt , who spent three years as a captive among the Nutka Indians on the Pacific Northwest coast in 1802-1805. He was forced to marry by decision of the council of leaders, who believed that his wife and family life could reconcile him to remain for the rest of his life with those who captured him. Before Jewitt, there was a choice between accepting a marriage under duress and capital punishment for him and his "father" (the second comrade with whom Jewitt was captured). Driven to such an extreme, with death on the one hand and marriage alliance on the other, I decided that the best way out would be to choose the lesser of two evils "(p. 154) [9].Monogamous relations in primitive society were consolidated due to increased competition of men for women of childbearing age due to the general increase in life expectancy; at the same time, the reproductive age of women remained limited, and in men it increased with life expectancy. The strategy for the protection of a permanent partner, according to some anthropologists, turned out to be the most advantageous [15].
На протяжении длительного времени во многих обществах браки устраивались родителями и родственниками старшего поколения, с целью не вызвать любовь, а из прагматических соображений[16]; романтика при этом была чем-то тем, что происходило незаметно вне брака, как, например, тайные встречи[17]. Как пишет в своей Большой Истории профессор Д. Кристиан, с начала XVIII века мировое движение общества может быть охарактеризовано как «расширение прав и возможностей личности», что приводит к эмансипации женщин и равенству отдельных лиц, и эти изменения оказали глубокое влияние на отношения между полами. Родительское влияние уменьшилось. Во многих обществах люди смогли решать — сами за себя — должны ли они вступить в брак, с кем они должны вступить в брак, и когда они должны вступить в брак.
В середине XX века появление контроля над рождаемостью, а также безопасных процедур аборта значительно изменило баланс сил, и уменьшило социальное давление к браку, как средству удовлетворения сексуальных побуждений. Сформировались новые типы отношений, что позволило людям жить вместе, без необходимости вступать в брак и без необходимости иметь дело с детьми.
Свидетельство о браке. НКВД УССР, 1939
Образование длительно существующих пар (или бо́льших групп особей) возникает у тех живых существ, детёныши которых после появления на свет длительно нуждаются в заботе и уходе, которые не может предоставить только один родитель, связанный также необходимостью добывать средства к существованию. Кроме людей, это, например, птенцовые птицы. У тех живых существ, у которых детёныши после появления на свет уже достаточно развиты, чтобы самостоятельно искать корм и питаться, длительно устойчивых семейных пар не образуется, пример — выводковые птицы.
Брак изначально был создан как социальный институт, зачастую имеющий религиозную форму, для регламентации вопросов, связанных с созданием и функционированием семьи, в том числе вопросов, связанных с детьми. Именно в связи с появлением парного брака, как считается, появилась возможность фиксации отцовства. Впоследствии отсутствие такой фиксации в традиционных обществах приводило к тому, что внебрачные дети были ущемлены в правах по отношению к «законным» (рождённым в браке) детям. В ряде стран брачное законодательство, по-прежнему, и сегодня ещё дифференцирует права детей, рождённых в браке или вне брака. Однако правовые системы многих стран обеспечивают защиту ребёнка независимо от того, был ли он рождён в браке или нет, поэтому многие пары создают семьи, не заключая браков.
In Russia, children born out of wedlock retain the same rights as those born in marriage, if both parents recognize them. However, if the father refuses to recognize the illegitimate child as his fatherhood, it is often necessary to specifically prove in court. Interestingly, family law in Russia formally severely restricts the rights of parents to dispose of children's rights, prohibiting the refusal of the legal representative of a child of his rights and property.
In many countries, the adoption of an orphan is required to be married, single children are not allowed to adopt.
The states of our time often support the family as a “cell of society”. This is due to the fact that it is the family that performs the main work of raising children. Despite the fact that in a number of countries (including Russia) this support is small, it exists, despite financial difficulties, because it is in demand by society. Large families receive additional support.
At the same time, many couples are created without the goal of having children. Many heterosexual couples voluntarily refuse children (childfree) and can not have children because of infertility or because of age. In addition, there are also same-sex couples and transgender people, who in many countries can also marry today.
In "Theogony" ( another title. «Богосмешение») Ферекида Зевс вступил в брак с Хтонией, которая «получила имя Геи, так как Зевс дал ей Землю в качестве свадебного подарка». Зевс создал землю и океан, вышивая их на свадебном покрывале (в те времена существовал обычай: невеста обменивала своё свадебное покрывало на покрывало, вышитое её женихом)[18]: «„Желая, чтобы совершился брак с тобой, я этим чту тебя. Ты же будь довольна мною и будь мне соучастницей“. Говорят, что это семейное празднество встречи жениха и невесты случилось впервые. Отсюда же возник соответствующий закон для людей и богов. Она же отвечала, приняв благостно покрывало…»[19]. В передаче Прокла: «Зевс, намереваясь быть демиургом, превратился в Эроса[20]: создав космос из противоположностей, он привёл его к согласию и любви и посеял во всём тождественность и единение, пронизывающее универсум[21]».
Брак в иудаизме
См. также Хупа
Judaism regards marriage as the most desirable status of a person and sees in it a social institution created by God in the time of creation. According to the Bible, the goal of marriage is mutual aid between a man and a woman (Gen. 2:18), their carnal intimacy (Gen. 2:24) and the extension and increase of the human race (Gen. 1:28). Although in biblical times polygamy was widespread (see, for example, Judges 8:30; II Sam. 5:13; I C. 11: 3; II Chr. 11:21), numerous references to one wife they suggest that monogamy was the main form of marriage (see, for example, Ps. 128: 3; Pr. 12: 4, 18:22, 19:14, especially 31: 10-31). The metaphorical comparison of the relationship between God and Israel (or Jerusalem) with the relationship between the bride and groom (Isa. 61:10, 62: 5) or husband and wife (Ie. 16; Hosh. 2) was also often found in the books of the prophets monogamous marriage, because only he could be likened to the connection between God and the only people chosen by Him.
Church marriage
Christianity believes marriage is a divinely established lifelong union of man and woman. So, Jesus Christ, answering (Matt 19.4-6) on questions about the admissibility of a divorce, quotes Genesis 1.27 and Genesis 2.24, after which he affirms the principle of the indissolubility of marriage:
He answered them: have you not read that the One who created the man and the woman at the beginning made them? And he said: Therefore a man will leave his father and mother and cling to his wife, and the two will be one flesh, so that they are no longer two, but one flesh. So, what God has combined, man should not separate him. |
In the Holy Scripture, Christ speaks of Himself as the bridegroom (Matthew 9. 15; 25. 1-13; Luke 12. 35-36), and the anointed co-rulers of Jesus Christ are depicted as His wife and bride (Eph. 5. 24; Rev. 21. 9). [22] |
Marriage in Islam
Marital relations in Islam are based on the principles of glasnost (mystery marriage is interpreted as debauchery), voluntariness and the obligation of the husband to pay a gift (mahr). Consent to marriage by the legal guardian ( wali ) of a girl is preferable (stipulated in Hadith), but not necessarily [23].
Buddhism
Violation of marital fidelity is a violation of one of the principles of the Teaching. At the same time, marriage as such is exclusively secular.
Minimum marriage age
The age at which a person gets the right to marry independently, as well as with parental or other consent, depends on the country and may be different for girls and boys. Until recently, the age of marriage for girls in many countries was lower than for boys, but now in many places it has been raised to the age of boys for gender equality. Age and other conditions required for marriage vary from country to country, but are usually set at age eighteen. In most countries marriage is allowed at the age previously established, with parental consent or judicial approval, in some countries also allow young people to marry if the girl is pregnant. In many developing countries, formal prescriptions of the age of marriage are only guidelines. In some societies, marriage with a person (usually a girl) under the age of 18 is considered as a child marriage.
When the marriage age is lower in religious law than in the law of the country, then the law of the state prevails. However, some religious communities do not accept the supremacy of state law in this matter, which can lead to child marriage or forced marriage.
“For legal marriage, against illegal marriage!”, The slogan in the village of Xinupu, Hubei Province of China
Psychological vocabulary treats psychological readiness for marriage as a system of psychological characteristics of the subject, ensuring a successful marriage. It includes: physiological readiness for marriage (the ability to reproductive function); general personal readiness (the necessary level of mental development is psychological maturity).
Borman R., Schille G., T.V. Andreeva, I.V. Grebennikov, and V.A. Sysenko were engaged in this problem. I. V. Grebennikov writes that marriage means the creation of a family and gives rise to new rights and obligations in relation to each other and to future children.
Spouses have equal rights and duties: they raise children together, by mutual consent, solve all issues of family life. They have equal rights to own, use and dispose of property acquired during the marriage in the mutual material content of each other. Spouses are free to choose occupations, professions, and place of residence.
T.V. Andreeva, I.V. Grebennikov and V.A. Sysenko distinguish three main stages of young people’s readiness for marriage:
With a person's family, as a rule, he associates his desire to be happy. Relationships between spouses and the nature of family life are influenced by the motives for marriage. Awareness of them is an important indicator of ethical and psychological readiness for family life.
The family plays an important role in the life of society as a whole and in the life of every person. Many problems that arise in the modern family are the result of not only a violation of the interaction between spouses, but also changes in gender stereotypes over the past five or six generations. Contradictions between sociocultural norms, gender roles and the archetypes of marital relations lead to difficulties and tensions that require awareness, research and reflection. Over the past 100-150 years, a number of socio-economic and technical achievements have occurred: an increase in life expectancy, facilitation of domestic work by means of technical progress, female education, women's equality in matters of professional employment, etc. Each of these achievements has contributed to the destabilization of the institution of marriage.
According to the psychotherapist Alexander Poleev, “the family as such is becoming less and less popular form of life, a form of relationship between a man and a woman. The place of the family rather quickly, right before our eyes, is occupied by other forms of relations: guest, extraterritorial, partial, contractual and some other ”[24] [25].
Statistics show that the percentage of people living in an unregistered or de facto marriage is growing around the world and does not have a clear dependence on the standard of living in a given country, while the percentage of adults in a traditional marriage falls accordingly. For example, back in 1960, approximately 5% of children in the United States were born to unmarried women, but already in 1980, this figure reached 18%, and in 2009, 41% — that is, an increase of almost 8 times in 50 years [26]. In Europe, the percentage of actual marriages has also steadily increased over the past decades. According to Eurostat, in 2011, 37.3% of all births in 27 EU countries were extramarital [27]. Most of the children were born out of wedlock in Iceland (64.3%), Estonia (59.7%), Slovenia (56.8%), Bulgaria (56%), Norway (55%), Sweden (54.2%) and France (55%). Other European countries with a high birth rate are Belgium (49%), Denmark (48.6%), Great Britain (46.9%), Latvia (43.7%), the Netherlands (43.3%), Hungary (42 , 2%), Czech Republic (41.8%), Finland (40.8%), Austria (40.4%), Slovakia (34%), Germany (33.5%). Slightly lower share of extramarital births in Greece (8.1%) and in Cyprus (15.2%) [27]. In Russia, almost every third child (30%) was born out of wedlock in 2010 [28].
However, the leaders in extramarital affairs are Latin American countries, despite the high proportion of religious Catholics in these countries. According to the UN, in 1998, from 55% to 74% of children in Latin countries were born out of wedlock, and this became the norm rather than the exception [29]. Thus, the proportion of children born out of wedlock: 41.5% in Mexico, 43.6% in Chile, 45.8% in Puerto Rico, 48.2% in Costa Rica, 52 in Argentina 7%, in Belize - 58.1%, in El Salvador - 73%, in Panama - 80% [29].
The promise of marriage may be an element of fraud, however:
“The actions of a person who has obtained the consent of a woman to engage in sexual intercourse or commit acts of a sexual nature by deception or abuse of trust (for example, a deliberately false promise to marry with her) cannot be considered crimes against sexual integrity and sexual freedom.”
- Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation dated June 15, 2004 N 11 Moscow “On judicial practice in cases of crimes stipulated by Articles 131 and 132 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation”.
At the same time, although in a marriage of convenience, the main purpose is the taking of property or other benefits of a spouse, this type of marriage is not considered as fraud, and is not regulated in any way from the point of view of the law.
Divorce
In secular states to which Russia belongs, as well as in a number of denominations, the dissolution of a marriage union (divorce) is allowed on various grounds. In Russia, with the consent of both spouses who do not have common children, a divorce is possible in the registry offices. If one of the spouses is against divorce, as well as in the presence of common minor children (even with the mutual consent of the divorcing), the divorce is made through the courts. A husband has no right to initiate a divorce case during his wife’s pregnancy and within a year after the birth of a child without the wife’s consent.
In different religious systems, the procedure for divorce can be much more complicated than in the Russian Federation, and much easier. For example, the dissolution of a Catholic parish is almost impossible, and in Islamic law, a husband just needs to utter a special phrase for divorce. However, even this simplicity is limited by other regulations.
In Russia, just over 1 million couples get married annually, with about 700,000 families filing for divorce [30].
Legislation of all countries regulates the property relations of spouses, especially in case of divorce or death of one of the spouses. In Russia, the law on marriage and family establishes that property acquired during marriage, unless otherwise stated in the marriage contract, is the joint property of the spouses, regardless of the ratio of their incomes. In divorce, this property is divided equally.
Different countries have different regulation of this issue. Thus, in ancient Rome, spouses usually kept their property separately - during divorce, the wife could not claim the property of her husband, and the husband could not claim the property of his wife [31] [32].
In Russia, marriage registration is carried out in a specialized state body - the civil registry office (in which, as a rule, there are specialized premises (Wedding Palaces, etc.), where the event of marriage registration is given a solemn form). According to the Family Code of the Russian Federation, a marriage is entered into with the personal presence of persons wishing to conclude it, at the end of a month from the day they filed an application (this period may be, for a number of reasons, both extended - no more than a month, or shortened - up before registration on the day of application).
In Russia, marriage is a voluntary union of a man and a woman in which the spouses are fully equal (see part 3 of article 1 of the RF IC and part 1 of article 12 of the RF IC. Only a marriage concluded in state bodies of civil registration is recognized (REGISTRY OFFICES ), as well as a marriage performed according to religious rites before the formation or restoration of the Soviet registry offices.In the USSR until 1944, the so-called unregistered actual marriage was equated to a registered one.
Marriage stamp in a Russian passport
According to the Family Code of the Russian Federation, the following legally significant signs of marriage are distinguished:
The condition for entering into a marriage is:
Marriage is not allowed in Russia (Article 14 of the RF IC and comments on it):
Disputes about the legalization of polygamy in Russia
From the deputies of local parliaments and religious leaders of a number of subjects of the Russian Federation came the initiative to recognize polygamy at the legislative level. In particular, attempts to legalize polygamy were in Bashkortostan, Chechnya and Tatarstan [33]. However, in none of the regions have the proposals of politicians been approved. But despite this, in some Russian families (mostly Muslim), men have several wives at once, although such marriages are not official [34] [35].
Features of registration of marriage with foreign citizens
Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of February 15, 1947 "On the prohibition of marriages between citizens of the USSR and foreigners" marriages of citizens of the USSR with foreign citizens in general were not allowed. This decree was repealed in 1953 [36], but for a long time in the RSFSR, the application of the norms of foreign family law was in fact not allowed. Так, согласно ст. 161 Кодекса о браке и семье РСФСР, при заключении на территории РСФСР браков советских граждан с иностранными гражданами и браков иностранных граждан между собой разрешалось использовать только советское семейное законодательство.
В настоящее время, в соответствии с ч. 1 ст. 156 СК РФ, форма и порядок заключения брака на территории Российской Федерации, независимо от гражданства лиц, вступающих в брак, определяются законодательством Российской Федерации.
Согласно ч. 2 ст. 156 СК РФ, условия заключения брака с иностранными гражданами на территории Российской Федерации определяются для каждого из лиц, вступающих в брак, законодательством государства, гражданином которого лицо является в момент заключения брака, с соблюдением требований статьи 14 СК РФ в отношении обстоятельств, препятствующих заключению брака. Из этого следует, что при заключении брака иностранные граждане не связаны необходимостью достижения брачного возраста в восемнадцать лет, предусмотренного ст. 12 СК РФ, если по закону их государства допускается заключение брака в более раннем возрасте, чем в Российской Федерации (например, 15-летняя француженка и 16-летняя британка или австралийка может вступить в брак с гражданином Российской Федерации без получения какого-либо специального разрешения на вступление в брак). С другой стороны, для них может существовать обязанность соблюдения условий заключения брака, не предусмотренных СК РФ, но закреплённых их национальным законодательством (например, получение разрешения на брак соответствующего компетентного органа своего государства).
Иностранный гражданин при подаче на территории Российской Федераций заявления о вступлении в брак должен представить справку, выданную компетентным государственным органом или консульством (посольством) государства, гражданином которого он является, подтверждающую, что он в браке не состоит, и легализованную в соответствующем консульском учреждении, если иное не вытекает из международных договоров (ст. 13 Закона об актах гражданского состояния РФ)[37].
Признание браков, заключённых за рубежом
According to Part 1 of Art. 158 СК РФ, браки между гражданами России и браки между гражданами РФ и иностранными гражданами или лицами без гражданства, заключённые за пределами России с соблюдением законодательства того государства, на территории которого они заключены, признаются действительными на территории Российской Федерации, если отсутствуют обстоятельства, предусмотренные ст. 14 СК РФ.
Браки между иностранными гражданами, заключённые за пределами России с соблюдением законодательства того государства, на территории которого они были заключены, признаются действительными в России (ч. 2 ст. 158 СК РФ).
В то же время, согласно ст. 167 СК РФ, нормы иностранного семейного права не применяются в случае, если такое применение противоречило бы основам правопорядка (публичному порядку) Российской Федерации. В этом случае применяется законодательство Российской Федерации.
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Interpersonal relationships
Terms: Interpersonal relationships