Lecture
Это окончание невероятной информации про риторические фигуры.
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the playwright Füzelier, who lived in the 18th century. Fuselier was a regular guest at the main tax collector of Marseille, a great hunter for songs and fun. He often feasted at the table, also singing lovers, except for one abbot, named Cherrie. Nature has not given either poetic talent or a voice to it, so that he always kept silence in a singing company. Once (on the Füzelier - February 26, 1720) he was so attached to him that he announced that he had composed the song and now it will be performed. Robea, he began to sing, but the very first stanza of “Pleurons tous en ce jour” (“we will all cry this day”) caused everyone to laugh, and after the second stanza “Du bois de calambour” (“pun-made tree”) the singing stopped altogether . The abbot picked up the first rhyming words that he had come to, considering that, apart from the rhyme, nothing was required of the verse. Nowadays, it is not known about such a tree, however, in the Botanical Detailed Dictionary, or Herbalist, written by Andrey Meyer, and published in Moscow in 1783 (Part 2, p. 18) it says:
A pun or eagle tree is a greenish and pleasant smell that has a precious tree brought from India in large pieces. It is used for various stucco work, for making rosaries, and also for the barber to give a good smell to the water that is shaved. It contains a lot of oil and salt, strengthens the brain, but is rarely used in medicine. In pharmacies, this is rarely available.
Thus, a pun-tree tree really existed, and the abbot and his companions knew about him. The impression of his song was made significant, and his ridiculous "pun" gradually became famous. Fuselier mentions that "this word has turned into a saying." The author himself, Father Cherier, began to be called the “pun-abbot,” and from that came the pun. [five]
At the end of the XVIII century, the word “pun” was already considered the word of the French language. It exists in Russian at least since the time of Karamzin [3] .
Due to the many equally-sounding words of different meanings, French is especially rich in puns. For example, about the wife of Napoleon I French: "C'est dommage qu'elle a un nez rond (un Néron)" (It is a pity that she has a round nose or it is a pity that she has Nero), about Napoleon III "Il a perdu Sedan ”(ses dents) (He surrendered Sedan in battle or He lost his teeth). During the revolution, when Pius VII succeeded Pope Pius VI, he went pun intended: “la religion va de Pie en Pie” (pis en pis) (“Religion moves from Pius to Pius or religion gets worse and worse”). Great fame in France, as a successful puns (calembourier), enjoyed the Marquis de Bievre [4] .
In literary use one should distinguish a pun in its own sense, as a comic form, from a serious play on words, having a very different stylistic function. Serious views include, for example, the magic play on words in the poetry of the peoples of primitive culture — conspiracies, prayers, plots connected with the testing of wisdom (the episode from Nobody in Odyssey). Another example is the symbolic word game in trobar clusters of medieval troubadours and poets dolce stil nuovo, in the philosophical and mystical lyrics of medieval eastern poets (primarily in Arabic and Persian poetry).
As a comic device, pun is especially characteristic of the forms of the grotesque and humor, but it is often found in the forms of crudely comic, especially when the second meaning of the words revealed in the pun violates the requirements of euphemism.
Catahreza ( catahrezis , from ancient Greek κατάχρησις - “abuse”) is a trope or a stylistic mistake, a wrong or unusual use of combinations of words with incompatible literal lexical meanings.
In catahrese, there is a combination of words in a figurative sense, despite the incompatibility of their literal meanings, so that in a literal sense there is a logical inconsistency, a combination of contradictory (logically incompatible) concepts. The cause of the contradiction is an unusual combination of words in a figurative meaning or the simultaneous use of a word in a literal and figurative meaning. A particular case can be considered the use of the word is not in accordance with its etymological meaning.
Catahreza is an ancient Greek term. In Latin rhetoric, the word abusio was used.
Catahreses arise in the process of semantic development of the language, its nominative means. At first, they can be perceived as cases of misuse. Subsequently, of course, under the concept of cathrese these cases can only be summed up with its expansive interpretation. Talking about cathresis in the strict sense is possible only in those cases, with respect to the word used in a figurative sense, where the memory of its direct meaning is still preserved. Any use of a word is considered a cathretic of this kind, in which its etymological meaning is forgotten, for example, in the case of the expression red ink, the internal form of the word ink is no longer realized, its connection with the word black . Other examples: colored linen , fire a gun ( fire a gun ), electric horseback , travel the sea , the bottom of the mountain . In the works of ancient theorists of rhetoric (for example, Quintillian), this was called the necessary cath cutter (lat. Abusio necessaria ) - “when the name nearest is transferred to a nameless person”.
Examples of a cachal cutter, with respect to which the memory of the violation of meaning is preserved, are those that are created intentionally for an expressive effect. Many phraseological units are among them: samovar gold , when the cancer whistles , there are eyes , green noise .
Many riddles are based on the effect of a cathrease, for example, about currants: “Is it red? No, it is black. Why is she white? Because green. ”
Katahreza used in the literature:
In idle night live burn in me
Snakes of hearty pangs
- A. S. Pushkin. Memory
In the Strugatsky story "The Interns", Yurkovsky, hinting that courage and rationality are incompatible, says: "Reasonable courage is a cathrete."
At the same time, the author may not have a cut-cutter, for example: “On the other hand, he sat with his wide arm, bold features and glittering eyes on his head , Count Osterman-Tolstoy ...” (Leo Tolstoy. War and Peace).
Unconsciously speaking or writing a cathrease becomes a pathway, a stylistic mistake, a defect in speech. In this case, the logical incompatibility of the connected images creates a comic effect usually unforeseen by the author: “the right wing of the faction has split into several streams”, “let the sharks of imperialism not extend their paws to us”.
Literature , lithotes (from the ancient Greek. Λιτότης - simplicity, smallness, moderation [1] ) - trails, meaning the understatement or deliberate softening.
Lithoth is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turn in which there is an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Lithota in this sense is opposite to hyperbole, therefore it is otherwise called reverse hyperbole . In the lithote, on the basis of a common trait, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this trait is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.
For example: “A horse as big as a cat”, “A person's life is one moment”, etc.
Essentially, litotes are extremely close to hyperbola in their expressive meaning, why it can be regarded as a kind of hyperbole. In the ancient works, the hyperbole was divided into “increase” (ancient Greek αὔξησις auxesis) and “decrease” (ταπινωσις tapinosis or μείωσις meiosis) [2] . On the other hand, the lithote can be classified according to its verbal structure as a comparison, a metaphor or an epithet.
Many lithots are idioms or phraseological units: “turtle tempo”, “close at hand”, “wept for money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.
Lithota is in folk and literary tales: "Little boy with a finger", "muzhik-with-kogotok" "girl-inch".
In A. S. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit”, Molchalin says:
Your spitz is a lovely spitz, no more than a thimble !
I stroked it all; like a silk coat!
N. V. Gogol often turned to the lithote. For example, in the story "Nevsky Prospect": "such a small mouth that more than two pieces can not miss", "waist, not thicker than the bottle neck".
N.A. Nekrasov in the Song of Yeremushka: “Below the thin bylinochki you have to turn your head.” In the poem "Peasant Children", he used the folk expression "a peasant with a claw":
And marching is important, in calmness chinny,
The horse is led by the bridles peasant
In big boots, in a sheepskin coat,
In big mittens ... and himself with a claw!
The whole poem by K. S. Aksakov “My Marichen is so small” is built on the lithote. P. I. Tchaikovsky put on the music the text of one of the publications of this poem with a different name of the title character (from the collection of A. N. Pleshcheyev) entitled “Children's Song. My Lizochek ” [3] :
My Liza is so small
So small
What a leaf of lilac
He made an umbrella for the shadow
And walked.
My Liza is so small
So small
What of the wings mosquito
I made two shirt
And - in the starch ...
Lithoth (aka: antenantiosis or antenantiosis ) is also called a stylistic figure of deliberate softening of an expression by replacing a word or expression containing a statement of a characteristic by an expression that denies the opposite characteristic. That is, the object or concept is determined through the negation of the opposite. For example: “smart” - “not stupid”, “agree” - “I don't mind”, “cold” - “not warm”, “low” - “not high”, “known” - “well-known”, “dangerous” - “ unsafe ”,“ good ”-“ not bad ”. In this value of lithote there is one form of euphemism.
An example from Beowulf [4] :
Truly, Hildeburg
then not happy
no valor friezes
not the power of the Danes,
when loved ones
and her son and brother
both fell in opposition.
... and the love for his wife grows cold in him
(Lithoda, indicating that the hero will drive away his wife.)
I do not appreciate the high-profile rights
From which not one is dizzy.
- A. S. Pushkin. From Pindmont
Believe: I listened with a lot ,
I greedily caught every sound.
- N. A. Nekrasov
Rifle fire between the rocks
Not a few mad curses
Not a few lives pulled out.
- Byron G. Childe Harold
(redirected from "Meiosis")
Literature , lithotes (from the ancient Greek. Λιτότης - simplicity, smallness, moderation [1] ) - trails, meaning the understatement or deliberate softening.
Lithoth is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turn in which there is an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Lithota in this sense is opposite to hyperbole, therefore it is otherwise called reverse hyperbole . In the lithote, on the basis of a common trait, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this trait is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.
For example: “A horse as big as a cat”, “A person's life is one moment”, etc.
Essentially, litotes are extremely close to hyperbola in their expressive meaning, why it can be regarded as a kind of hyperbole. In the ancient works, the hyperbole was divided into “increase” (ancient Greek αὔξησις auxesis) and “decrease” (ταπινωσις tapinosis or μείωσις meiosis) [2] . On the other hand, the lithote can be classified according to its verbal structure as a comparison, a metaphor or an epithet.
Many lithots are idioms or phraseological units: “turtle tempo”, “close at hand”, “wept for money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.
Lithota is in folk and literary tales: "Little boy with a finger", "muzhik-with-kogotok" "girl-inch".
In A. S. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit”, Molchalin says:
Your spitz is a lovely spitz, no more than a thimble !
I stroked it all; like a silk coat!
N. V. Gogol often turned to the lithote. For example, in the story "Nevsky Prospect": "such a small mouth that more than two pieces can not miss", "waist, not thicker than the bottle neck".
N.A. Nekrasov in the Song of Yeremushka: “Below the thin bylinochki you have to turn your head.” In the poem "Peasant Children", he used the folk expression "a peasant with a claw":
And marching is important, in calmness chinny,
The horse is led by the bridles peasant
In big boots, in a sheepskin coat,
In big mittens ... and himself with a claw!
The whole poem by K. S. Aksakov “My Marichen is so small” is built on the lithote. P. I. Tchaikovsky put on the music the text of one of the publications of this poem with a different name of the title character (from the collection of A. N. Pleshcheyev) entitled “Children's Song. My Lizochek ” [3] :
My Liza is so small
So small
What a leaf of lilac
He made an umbrella for the shadow
And walked.
My Liza is so small
So small
What of the wings mosquito
I made two shirt
And - in the starch ...
Lithoth (aka: antenantiosis or antenantiosis ) is also called a stylistic figure of deliberate softening of an expression by replacing a word or expression containing a statement of a characteristic by an expression that denies the opposite characteristic. That is, the object or concept is determined through the negation of the opposite. For example: “smart” - “not stupid”, “agree” - “I don't mind”, “cold” - “not warm”, “low” - “not high”, “known” - “well-known”, “dangerous” - “ unsafe ”,“ good ”-“ not bad ”. In this value of lithote there is one form of euphemism.
An example from Beowulf [4] :
Truly, Hildeburg
then not happy
no valor friezes
not the power of the Danes,
when loved ones
and her son and brother
both fell in opposition.
... and the love for his wife grows cold in him
(Lithoda, indicating that the hero will drive away his wife.)
I do not appreciate the high-profile rights
From which not one is dizzy.
- A. S. Pushkin. From Pindmont
Believe: I listened with a lot ,
I greedily caught every sound.
- N. A. Nekrasov
Rifle fire between the rocks
Not a few mad curses
Not a few lives pulled out.
- Byron G. Childe Harold
Metaphor (from ancient Greek. Μεταφορά - “transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a word or expression used in a figurative meaning, based on an unnamed comparison of the subject with any other based on their common feature. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. The metaphor of Aristotle, in essence, is almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or impersonation and assimilation. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another.
In the metaphor, you can select 4 "elements":
In lexicology - the semantic relationship between the meanings of a single polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarities (structural, external, functional).
Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of a word. In Shakespeare, for example, it is often not the original everyday meaning of a statement that is important, but its unexpected metaphorical meaning — a new meaning. This perplexed Leo Tolstoy, brought up on the principles of Aristotelian realism. Simply put, the metaphor not only reflects life, but also creates it. For example, Major Kovalev’s Nose in Gogol’s general’s uniform is not only a personification, a hyperbole or a comparison, but also a new meaning that was not there before. Futurists did not strive for the plausibility of metaphor, but for its maximum removal from the original meaning. For example, the "cloud in the pants." Researchers note the relatively rare use of metaphor in Soviet fiction, although it is not necessary to speak about its “exile” (see, for example: “So we parted. Trample is silent, and the field is empty” (A. Gaidar, “Fate of a drummer”) In the 1970s, a group of poets appeared on their banner “metaphor in a square" or "metametaphor" (a term by Konstantin Kedrov). A distinctive feature of the metaphor is its constant participation in the development of language, speech and culture in general. This is due to the formation metaphors under the influence of modern sources of knowledge and information, the use of metaphor in identifying objects of technical achievements of mankind.
In the modern theory of metaphor, it is customary to distinguish between a diaphor (a sharp, contrasting metaphor) and an epiphora (a habitual, erased metaphor) [1]
Among other paths, metaphor occupies a central place, as it allows us to create capacious images based on bright, unexpected associations. Metaphors can be based on the similarity of the most diverse attributes of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position, etc.
According to the classification proposed by N. D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into
Consider in more detail the metaphors that contribute to the creation of images, or figurative.
In a broad sense, the term "image" means reflected in the consciousness of the external world. In a work of art, images are the embodiment of the author’s thinking, his unique vision and a vivid image of a picture of the world. The creation of a bright image is based on the use of similarity between two objects that are far from each other, practically in a peculiar contrast. In order for a comparison of objects or phenomena to be unexpected, they must be quite dissimilar to each other, and sometimes the similarity may be quite insignificant, imperceptible, giving food for thought, and may be absent altogether.
The boundaries and structure of the image can be practically any: the image can be conveyed by a word, phrase, sentence, super-phrasal unity, can occupy an entire chapter or cover the composition of the whole novel.
However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. For example, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson distinguish two types of metaphors considered in relation to time and space: ontological, that is, metaphors that allow to see events, actions, emotions, ideas, etc., as a certain substance ( the mind is an entity , the mind is a fragile thing ), and oriented, or orientational, that is, metaphors that do not define one concept in terms of another, but organize the whole system of concepts in relation to each other ( happy is up, sad is down; conscious is up, unconscious is down ).
George Lakoff in his work The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor talks about how to create a metaphor and about the composition of this tool of artistic expression. A metaphor, according to Lakoff's theory, is a prose or poetic expression, where a word (or several words), which is a concept, is used in an indirect meaning to express a concept similar to this one. Lakoff writes that in prose or poetic speech, a metaphor lies outside the language, in thought, in imagination, referring to Michael Reddy, his work “The Conduit Metaphor”, in which Reddy notices that the metaphor lies in the language itself, in everyday speech, and not only in poetry or prose. Also, Reddy argues that "the speaker places ideas (objects) in words and sends them to the listener, who extracts ideas / objects from words." This idea is also reflected in the study of J. Lakoff and M. Johnson “Metaphors we live with”. Metaphorical concepts are systemic, “the metaphor is not limited to only the sphere of language, that is, the sphere of words: the very processes of human thought are largely metaphorical. Metaphors as language expressions become possible precisely because there are metaphors in the conceptual system of man. ”
Metaphor is often regarded as one of the ways to accurately reflect reality in artistic terms. However, I. R. Halperin says that “this concept of accuracy is very relative. It is a metaphor that creates a concrete image of an abstract concept, which makes it possible to interpret real messages in different ways. ” [2]
As soon as the metaphor was realized, isolated from a number of other linguistic phenomena and described, the question of its dual nature immediately arose: to be a means of language and a poetic figure. The first who contrasted the poetic linguistic metaphor was S. Bally, who showed the universal metaphor of the language.
Methonimia (ancient Greek μετονυμία - “renaming”, from μετά - “above” and ὄνομα / ὄνυμα - “name”) is a type of trail, a word combination in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in that or other (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the subject, which is denoted by the word being replaced. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense.
Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor with which it is often confused: metonymy is based on replacing the words “by adjacency” (part instead of whole or vice versa, class representative instead of the whole class or vice versa, container instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and metaphor - “by similarity”. A special case of metonymy is synecdoche.
For example: “All flags will be our guests”, where “flags” mean “countries” (part replaces the whole, Latin pars pro toto ). The meaning of metonymy is that it identifies a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace others. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by the greater real interconnection of substitute members, and on the other, by more restrictive, eliminating those traits that are not directly noticeable in this phenomenon. Like a metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word “wiring”, the meaning of which is metonymically distributed from action to its result), but is of particular importance in artistic and literary work.
In early Soviet literature, an attempt was made to maximize the use of metonymy and theoretically and practically gave constructivists who advanced the principle of so-called “locality” (the motivation of verbal means by the theme of the work, that is, the restriction of their real dependence on the topic). However, this attempt was not sufficiently substantiated, since the extension of metonymy to the detriment of metaphor is irregular: these are two different ways of establishing a connection between phenomena, not excluding, but complementing each other.
Impersonation of the Church. Statue of Strasbourg Cathedral
Personalization (personification, pro-song) - trope, attribution of properties and signs of animate objects to inanimate. [1] Very often the personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features.
Examples:
And grief, grief, sorrowing!
A and bastard grief belted ,
Bast legs are isoputa.
- Folk song [2]
The personification was widespread in the poetry of different epochs and peoples, from folklore lyrics to poetic works of romantic poets, from most prestigious poetry to the works of OBERIUtov.
Paphos (Greek πάθος - suffering, passion, excitement, enthusiasm) is a rhetorical category corresponding to the style, manner or method of expression of feelings, which are characterized by emotional elevation over something.
The category was first fully developed by Aristotle, who, along with pathos, singled out such elements of rhetoric as ethos and logos. In the interpretation of Aristotle, pathos is a technique in which the aesthetics of the narrative is conveyed through the tragedy of the hero, his suffering and the response emotions of the audience. Using pathos, the author or speaker should arouse the right feelings to the audience, while not fully revealing their own.
Wiktionary has an article “pathos”
Not to be confused with Paraphrase.
In stylistics and poetics, periphyphosis ( paraphrasis , paraphrases ; from the ancient Greek περίφρασιательное - “descriptive expression”, “allegory”: περί - “around”, “around” and φράσις - “utterance”) is a path that expressively describes one concept using a few.
Periphrase is an indirect mention of an object by not naming, but descriptions (for example, “night light” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter's creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).
In the periphery, the names of objects and people are replaced with indications of their signs, for example, “writing these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “falling asleep” instead of “fall asleep”, “king of beasts” instead of “lion”, “one-armed gangster” instead of "playing machine". There are logical paraphrases (“the author of“ Dead Souls ”) and figurative paraphrases (“ the sun of Russian poetry ”).
Often, paraphrase is used for the descriptive expression of "low" or "forbidden" concepts ("unclean" instead of "hell", "get by with a handkerchief" instead of "blow your nose"). In these cases, paraphrase is simultaneously a euphemism.
The mock request is redirected here; see also other meanings.
Sarkamism (Greek σαρκασμός, from σαρκάζω, literally “breaking the flesh”) is one of the types of satirical exposing, stinging mockery, the highest degree of irony, based not only on the heightened contrast of the implied and expressed, but also on the immediate intentional exposure of the implied.
Sarcasm is a mockery that can be opened by a positive judgment, but in general it always contains a negative hue and indicates a lack of a person, object or phenomenon, that is, what is happening in relation to what is happening. Like satire, sarcasm encompasses the struggle with hostile phenomena of reality through ridiculing them. Ruthlessness, sharpness of exposure is a distinctive feature of sarcasm. In contrast to irony, sarcasm finds its expression the highest degree of indignation, hatred. Sarcasm is never a characteristic device of a humorist who, revealing the funny in reality, always portrays her with a certain amount of sympathy and sympathy.
The comic element in sarcastic incrimination can be quite insignificant. In sarcasm, indignation is expressed quite openly. For example, Lermontov speaks of his generation with such sarcasm: “We are rich, barely out of the cradle, with the mistakes of fathers and their late mind ...” and concludes his “Duma” with a caustic comparison of the attitude of future generations to it with “mocking bitter deceived son over the wasted father. "
Due to its immediate percussiveness, sarcasm is a form of exposure that is equally inherent in journalism, controversy, oratory, and fiction. That is why sarcasm is especially widely used in conditions of acute political struggle. The developed political life of Greece and Rome gave rise to high samples of sarcasm in Demosthenes, Cicero and Juvenal.
The creativity of the fighters of the young bourgeoisie against feudalism was permeated with deep sarcasm. Rabelais, a humanist who fought against the stiffness of consciousness with theology and scholastic science, directs the arrows of sarcasm against scholastic scholars, producing mocking “Sorbonate”, “Sorbonida”, etc. from the word “Sorbonne”, etc. Voltaire widely used sarcasm to expose Roman Catholic to identify Roman Catholic. and her servants in their pamphlets, and especially in the Virgin of Orleans. In Voltaire's pamphlets, sarcasm addressed to the church rose to pathos of indignation in the often repeated ending: “Ecrasez l'infâme” (Crush the bastard). Swift's sarcasm is different in its extraordinary diversity in exposing various aspects of the social life of contemporary England.
Examples of sarcasms that have become aphorisms:
Sinekdokha (ancient Greek συνεκδοχή - correlation, literally - “comprehension”) is a trope, a type of metonymy, based on transferring meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Usually in synecdoche used:
This term has other meanings, see Comparison.
Comparison is a pathway in which the similarity of one object or phenomenon to another occurs according to some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to identify in the object of comparison new, important, predominant for the subject of the utterance properties.
In comparison, the following are distinguished: the compared object (the object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place (the means of comparison), and their common feature (basis of comparison, comparative attribute, Latin. Tertium comparationis ). One of the distinguishing features of the comparison is the mention of both objects being compared, and the common feature is far from always mentioned. Comparison should be distinguished from metaphor.
Comparisons are characteristic of folklore.
There are different types of comparisons:
Comparisons in the form of comparative turnover, formed with the help of unions, as if, as if, precisely: “A man is stupid, like a pig, but cunning, like the devil.” Unionless comparisons are in the form of a sentence with a composite named predicate: "My home is my fortress." Comparisons formed with the noun in the instructive case: “he walks with a nog”. Denying the comparison: "Attempt is not torture."
Euphemism (Greek: ευφήμη - “goodness”) is a neutral in meaning and emotional “load” word or descriptive expression, commonly used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate. In politics, euphemisms are often used to soften certain words and expressions in order to mislead the public and falsify reality. For example, using the expression “tougher interrogation methods” instead of the word “torture”, etc.
Euphemisms are used in speech or printed texts to replace words that are considered rude or "obscene", for example, abusive language and abusive words. Sometimes euphemisms use “non-literary” words with a less negative “load” than abuse and mate — colloquial, jargon, and author. The use of euphemisms significantly mitigates the negative "load" on the text of swear words or swear words, although in most cases it is possible to determine by a euphemism or text meaning which word it replaces.
The basis of the phenomenon of euphemism lie:
As the forms of human life become thinner, the direct designations of known objects and phenomena (for example, certain physiological acts and parts of the human body) begin to be reckoned odious and are expelled from the language, especially from its literary reflection. So, for a noble patrician in the heyday of the economic and political power of Rome, some turns of an earlier era become unacceptable: lat. Noli dici morte Africani “castratam” esse rem publicam (Cicero, “De oratore”, II).
Medieval knighthood avoids in the courtly poetry direct designations of the genitals, defiantly preserved in their language by the advancing third class (“The novel about the Rose”). A particular tendency to euphemism is usually the language at the time of the stabilization of culture, for example, the linguistic contrivance of varistocratic salons of the 16th — 17th centuries, the language of the 19th century literature.
Not only in communication other forms of treatment are applied, but also vices or misdemeanors are mentioned in particularly relaxed expressions. On the "discovery" of such euphemisms are often built forms of satire and ironic antiphrase.
According to Mokienko [1] , a popular euphemism of the “first member” of the obscene triad is the “three letter” turn. In addition to the obvious euphemistic variants of abusive words ( pancake, burned pancake, fly plate, yadr loaf, japan bicher, Japanese policeman ), Mokienko points to the "Russian mat in the middle of the cold snake" in the harmless-looking euphemisms "Christmas trees!" And "my mother!"
Researchers working in this field themselves use euphemisms, usually with the aim of "expanding the circle of addressees" [2] of their work. Mokienko points to a curious euphemistic pseudonym of English. Boris Sukitch Razvratnikov , under which the American Slavist V. Friedman published his works on obscene vocabulary (English) Russian. [1] . E. Senichkina in her dictionary of euphemisms to preserve the scientific style uses the term “instead of direct designation” and, in isolated cases, the replacement of letters in “direct naming” with asterisks; at the same time, strawberry lovers are referred to V. Bui’s dictionary “Russian cherished idiomatics” [3] , in which “literary euphemisms” describe the extra-literary euphemisms [2] .
People whose professions are risky have superstitious taboos on certain words. For example, pilots, parachutists, circus artists avoid using the word "last." It is replaced by “extreme” (or “once again”, it’s customary to say “final” or “encore” directly at the circus) - for example, “extreme flight”. Also try to avoid the word "death", replacing it with "bony," "without bearing," "this, with a scythe." The miners instead of "gold" say "yellow metal". The same is called gold in police records, since a special examination gives the final conclusion on the nature and characteristics of the seized (found) material, and before its decision to recognize the yellow metal as gold is illegal. The term “person of Caucasian nationality” has a similar origin. It was used to designate persons of an indefinite ethnic group, whose identity was not established at the time of drawing up the protocol, and then migrated to everyday speech.
In English, a significant accumulation of euphemisms occurred in the Victorian era. The most famous are euphemisms for "indecent" parts of the body, which are often replaced by the names of animals.
To indicate the penis, the mass of euphemisms is used: prick (lit. prick), dick (diminutive on behalf of Richard), big ben , cock (lit. rooster), middle leg , pecker (“the one who bites”) and etc.
Some of these euphemisms began to be considered obscene language. Previously, the most offensive was the use of the word "prick". In modern English, “cock” is considered the roughest. The word “cock” in the meaning of “rooster” is generally out of common use, it is considered decent to use “rooster”. This is reminiscent of the situation in the Russian language with the word "fuck."
Euphemisms: pussy (lit. "pussy", "kitty") [4] , beaver (lit. "beaver").
Words that fully correspond to the expression of the Russian word "ass" in the English language is not. The word " butt " corresponds to the quite acceptable English word butt . The word ass (literally "donkey", "fool") - in the American English ass - was previously a euphemism, but has long become an abusive word.
There are several “polite” expressions, for example “aunt visit” - auntie's visit, “color television” - color television.
In documents, media messages, euphemisms are often used that change the emotional coloring of the message. For example: “Ne g ro” (American) → “African American”, “Disabled” → “Persons with Disabilities”, “Persons with Peculiar Psychophysical Development”, “Other People” (in some countries); prison → “places of detention”, “places not so remote”. In Soviet times, the words "rootless cosmopolitan" and "Zionist" often served as a substitute for the words "Jew" or "Jew" [5] [6] [7] [8] . Recently, the expression “reputable businessman” (“reputable entrepreneur”) is used by the press as a euphemism, when the author wants to hint transparently about the involvement of this person in criminal activities, but fears claims and accusations of unprovenness.
The names of low-prestige works are also received by euphemisms: courier → “forwarder”, secretary → “office manager”, “assistant”, room cleaner → “cleaning manager”, “professional cleaning operator”, cleaner → “technical cleaner”, janitor → “caretaker ". Such a renaming, leading to a large number of positions with the names “manager”, is characterized by a joke: “janitor — manager for external ecology” and “homeowner”, “loader — logistics manager”, “security guard — manager of emergency situations”.
To circumvent the taboo on the direct use of the name of the devil, used to use such euphemisms as "jester", "horned", "evil", "unclean", etc.
In Judaism, it is considered unacceptable to say the name of God in vain (that is, in vain, for no reason), it is considered especially unacceptable to say the name of God. Therefore, when reading the Hebrew bible in places where God's own name is mentioned (Hebrew יהוה), “Adonai” - “Lord” is pronounced (for pronunciation, see tetragrammaton and the Hebrew language for details).
Characteristically, the new designations of "obscene" objects and phenomena over time lose the character of euphemisms, begin to be perceived as a direct indication of the "obscene" subject and in their turn become "obscene." On this property of euphemisms, one of the favorite methods of the “crude comedians” is built - a game of so-called “transparent” euphemisms (for example, Chapter IX of “Gargantua” Rabelais).
A similar situation occurred with the chain “ne gr o” → “black” → “afro-american” (American N eg ro) or “lame” → “crippled” → “handicapped” → “disabled” → “differently abled” (disabled).
This process is gradual; only occasionally, due to serious social upheavals, the rapid transformation of a word from neutral to taboo happens. For example, because of the German "death camps", the word "concentration camp" (the camp where civilian prisoners of war are kept) got a negative meaning.
However, the same situation exists with dysphemisms: dysphemism with time can lose its taboo, for example, fr. tête , ital. testa - head testa - pot with a neutral caput .
Dysphemism
Epithet (from the ancient Greek. Ἐπίθετον - “attached”) - the definition of the word, affecting its expressiveness. It is expressed primarily by the adjective, but also by the adverb (“love ardently”), the noun (“fun noise”), and the numeral (“second life”).
An epithet is a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic hue, helps the word (expression) to gain color and saturation. Used both in poetry (more often) and in prose. Many writers use epithets (TG Shevchenko, I. Franko).
Without a definite provision in the theory of literature, the name “epithet” is appended approximately to those phenomena that are called definition in syntax, and etymology — adjective; but coincidence is only partial.
The established view of the epithet is not in the theory of literature: some attribute it to the figures of speech, others consider, along with the figures and paths, an independent means of poetic representation; some consider the epithet an element of purely poetic speech, others find it in prose.
Alexander Veselovsky described several points in the history of the epithet, which, however, is only an artificially selected fragment of the general history of style [1] .
Literature theory deals only with the so-called decorating epithet (epitheton ornans). This name originates from the old theory, which in the methods of poetic thinking means to decorate poetic speech, but only the phenomena designated by this name represent a category that is distinguished by the theory of literature in the term “epithet”.
As not every epithet has the form of a grammatical definition, so not every grammatical definition is an epithet: a definition narrowing the scope of a defined concept is not an epithet.
Logic distinguishes synthetic judgments — those in which the predicate calls a sign that is not enclosed in the subject (this mountain is high) and analytical — in which the predicate only reveals the sign already present in the subject (people are mortal).
Transferring this distinction to grammatical definitions, one can say that the title of the epithet is only analytical definitions: “dispersed storm”, “crimson takes” are not epithets, but “clear azure”, “long-length spear”, “London scrupulous”, “Good God” - epithets, because clarity is a permanent sign of azure, scrupulousness is a sign extracted from an analysis of the poet's presentation about London, etc.
The epithet — the beginning of the decomposition of the fused complex of representations — highlights the trait already given in the word being defined, since it is necessary for the mind versed in phenomena; the attribute distinguished by him may seem insignificant, accidental, but it is not so for the creative thought of the author.
Bylina constantly calls the saddle Cherkassky not to distinguish this saddle from others, not Cherkassky, but because it is the saddle of the hero, the best that a people-poet can imagine: this is not a simple definition, but a method of stylistic idealization. Like other techniques - conventional turns, typical formulas - the epithet in ancient songwriting easily became permanent, invariably repeated with a well-known word (the hands are white, the girl is red) and so closely attached to it that even contradictions and absurdities do not overcome this constancy (“ the hands of the whites ”turn out to be at the“ Arapina ”, Tsar Kalin -“ the dog ”not only in the mouth of his enemies, but also in the speech of his ambassador to Prince Vladimir).
This “oblivion of real meaning”, in the terminology of AH Veselovsky, is already a secondary phenomenon, but the very appearance of a permanent epithet cannot be considered primary: its constancy, which is usually considered a sign of an epic, epic outlook, is the result of selection after some diversity.
It is possible that in the epoch of the most ancient (syncretic, lyric-epic) song creativity of this constancy was not yet: “only later did it become a sign of that typical conditional - and class - world view and style, which we consider, somewhat one-sidedly, characteristic of the epos and folk поэзии»
Epithets can be expressed by different parts of speech (mother-Volga, wind-bum, eyes bright, cheese earth). Epithets - a very common concept in literature, without them it is difficult to imagine a work of art.
Часть 1 Rhetorical figures. Speech figures.
Часть 2 Parcel Examples - Rhetorical figures. Speech figures.
Часть 3 Using - Rhetorical figures. Speech figures.
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Rhetoric
Terms: Rhetoric