Lecture
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semantically) on the previous context, while it has specific structural features.
A.P. Skovorodnikov calls four functions of parcellation in literary texts: pictorial, characterological, emotional-excretory, and expressive-grammatical.
The visual function is aimed at the artistic specification of the depicted. It is used for the following purposes: 1) to create a slow-frame effect; 2) highlighting the details of the overall picture; 3) highlighting the important, from the point of view of the artistic and figurative concretization of the image; 4) creating an unexpected pause, which contributes to an increase in the effect of a surprise onset of action; 5) enhance the effect of the duration of action; 6) enhance visual contrast.
The essence of the characterological function is to reproduce the speech manner of the subject of the narrative or character. It is used for:
1) the expression of peripheral connective connection characteristic of spoken language;
2) introducing into the speech of the narrator a colloquial intonation of joining;
3) creating contexts of spurious-direct speech;
4) images of internal speech, and through it - characteristics of the state of the subject of this internal speech.
Emotionally expressive function is realized when parcellation "serves as a means of enhancing emotions, emotional evaluation or emotional state." Here you can differentiate two cases:
a) parcellation enhances the emotionality of the statement;
b) parcellation does not express a particular emotion, but contains an evaluative component.
A parcel performs an expressive-grammatical function if it serves to express any syntactic relations.
No smoky kitchens. No homeless streets.
Twelve beats. Four beats. And six.
And again. Gulliver. Worth it. Slouching
Shoulder. On a cloud. Heavily. Lean on
- Pavel Antokolsky. Gulliver
He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes.
- Vasily Shukshin
Night. The outside. Lamp. Pharmacy.
Senseless and dim light.
Live for at least a quarter of a century -
Everything will be so. There is no outcome.
- Alexander Blok
Not to be confused with Paraphrase.
In stylistics and poetics, periphyphosis ( paraphrasis , paraphrases ; from the ancient Greek περίφρασιательное - “descriptive expression”, “allegory”: περί - “around”, “around” and φράσις - “utterance”) is a path that expressively describes one concept using a few.
Periphrase is an indirect mention of an object by not naming, but descriptions (for example, “night light” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter's creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).
In the periphery, the names of objects and people are replaced with indications of their signs, for example, “writing these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “falling asleep” instead of “fall asleep”, “king of beasts” instead of “lion”, “one-armed gangster” instead of "playing machine". There are logical paraphrases (“the author of“ Dead Souls ”) and figurative paraphrases (“ the sun of Russian poetry ”).
Often, paraphrase is used for the descriptive expression of "low" or "forbidden" concepts ("unclean" instead of "hell", "get by with a handkerchief" instead of "blow your nose"). In these cases, paraphrase is simultaneously a euphemism.
Pleonism (from the Greek Greek. Πλεονασμός - superfluous, excess) - a turn of speech in which duplication of some element of meaning occurs; the presence of several linguistic forms expressing the same meaning, within a complete segment of speech or text; as well as a language expression in which there is a similar duplication. [one]
The term "pleonasm" came from ancient stylistics and grammar. Ancient authors give pleonasm a variety of estimates. Quintilian, Donat, Diomedes define pleonasm as speech overload with excessive words, hence as a stylistic flaw. On the contrary, Dionysius of Halicarnassus defines this figure as the enrichment of speech with words, seemingly superfluous, but in reality giving it clarity, strength, rhythm, persuasiveness, pathos, impracticable in speech laconic.
Stylistic figures close to pleonasm are tautology and, in part, paraphrase. The relationship between the terms pleonasm and tautology is understood by linguists differently. Pleonasm is a linguistic term [2] , tautology is both linguistic and logical (although in logic this word is used in a completely different sense).
In some cases, pleonasm is deliberately used to emotionally enhance the effect of the utterance or to create a comic effect (both in written and in oral speech). In folklore and poetry, pleonasm contributes to the melodiousness of speech, its emotional coloring and to create figurativeness (“path-road”, “pole-field”). However, more often it is a defect and is used unconsciously. [3]
There are syntactic and semantic pleonasms.
Syntax pleonasm is the result of excessive use of the service parts of speech [4] , for example: “He told me that he was accepted for another job” (“about that” can be omitted without losing meaning) or “I know that he will come” (the “what” union is not necessary when combining the sentence with the verb phrase “I know”). Both sentences are grammatically correct, but the words “about that” and “what” are considered in this case as pleonastic.
Semantic pleonasm is more a matter of style and use of grammar. Linguists often call it speech redundancy in order to avoid confusion with syntactic pleonasm, a more important phenomenon for theoretical linguistics. It can also take various forms. In many cases of semantic pleonasm, the status of the word as pleonastic depends on the context. In contrast to semantic pleonasm, an oxymoron is formed by combining two opposing words.
As separate types of semantic pleonasm, perissology (or synonymous repetition) and verbosity are distinguished. [4] In perissology, the semantic meaning of one word is included in another, for example:
When verbosity in the composition of sentences or phrases include words that do not increase the total semantic load, for example:
Also, redundancy is implicitly found in expressions containing abbreviations: “power line (TRC) line” (power line), “SI system” (international system), “CD-disk” (Compact Disc), VIP-person (Very Important Person) .
Sometimes editors and grammatical stylists call “pleonasm” verbosity, also called “logoreya” (“this male person in the past time consciously carried out the process of walking on foot with a normal speed towards the object that represents the person’s place of permanent residence” home").
Prolepsis (from the Greek Greek πρόληψιψ - assumption, premonition, foresight) is a figure of speech, used in three meanings:
1. Mention future events or properties as anticipated. For example:
Along the walls of Florence in all supports
With the killers, their victim rode
- John Keats
In film, the analogue of this technique is flashforward.
2. Anticipating the narrators of expected objections or doubts and their denial. This form is also often called prokalemapsis .
3. Simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun replacing it [1] . For example:
Dinner is on the stove.Ivanov and Sidorov - these we call.
This term has other meanings, see Retardation.
Retardation (from Lat. Retardatio - slowing down) - literary and artistic technique: a delay in the development of an action by including in the text off-tabular elements - lyrical digressions, various descriptions (landscape, interior, characteristic).
A rhetorical question (erotema) is a rhetorical figure representing a question, the answer to which is known in advance, or a question to which the questioner himself gives an answer.
In fact, a rhetorical question is a question, the answer to which is not required or not expected due to its extreme obviousness. In any case, an interrogative statement implies a well-defined, well-known answer, so that the rhetorical question, in fact, is a statement made in an interrogative form. For example, asking the question “How much longer will we tolerate this injustice?” Does not expect an answer, but wants to emphasize that “We tolerate injustice, and for too long” and hint that “It’s time to stop tolerating it and take something about this . "
The rhetorical question is used to enhance the expressiveness (highlighting, underlining) of a phrase. A characteristic feature of these turns is conventionality, that is, the use of grammatical form and intonation of the question in cases that, in essence, do not require it.
The rhetorical question, as well as rhetorical exclamation and rhetorical appeal, are peculiar revolutions of speech, which enhance its expressiveness, - so-called patterns. A distinctive feature of these revolutions is their conventionality, that is, the use of interrogative, exclamatory, etc., intonations in cases that do not essentially require it, making the phrase in which these revolutions are used takes on a particularly underlined tint that enhances its expressiveness. Thus, a rhetorical question is, in essence, a statement made only in an interrogative form, whereby the answer to such a question is already known in advance, for example:
Can I see in the glitter of the new
Dreams of faded beauty?
Can I wear a cover again
Familiar life nudity?
- Zhukovsky V.A.
It is obvious that the meaning of these phrases is in the statement that it is impossible to return “dreams of faded beauty”, etc .; The question is a conditional rhetorical turn. But thanks to the form of the question, the attitude of the author to the phenomenon in question becomes much more expressive and emotionally colored.
A rhetorical exclamation has a similar conditional character, in which exclamatory intonation does not follow from the meaning of a word or phrase, but is arbitrarily attached to it, thereby expressing a relationship to this phenomenon, for example:
Swing! Takeoff! Shuttle, turn off! Shaft spin around!
Drive whirl length! Do not be late!
- Bryusov V. Ya.
Here, the words “swing,” “take off,” as well as the words “departure and flight”, as it were, ascertaining the movement of machines, are given with exclamations expressing the feelings with which the poet observes these machines, although in the very words, by their direct meaning for the exclamation there is no reason for intonation.
In the same example, we also find a rhetorical appeal, that is, again a conditional appeal to objects to which, in essence, it cannot be addressed (“Shuttle, sleep!”, Etc.). The structure of this appeal is the same as in the rhetorical question and rhetorical exclamation.
Thus, all these rhetorical figures are peculiar syntactic constructions that convey a certain elation and pathetic character of the narrative.
The rhetorical exclamation (epekfonesis, exclamation) is the reception of the culmination of the senses. It conveys the author’s various emotions: surprise, delight, grief, joy, etc. In writing, a rhetorical exclamation is usually a sentence ending in an exclamation mark. When reading, rhetorical exclamations are allocated intonation.
What a summer, what a summer!
Yes, it's just witchcraft
- Fedor Tyutchev
Types of rhetorical exclamations are:
Oh times, about morals!
Original text (lat.) [Show]
- Latin dictum
Oh, maiden of all blush
Among the green mountains -
Germany!
Germany!
Germany!
A shame!
- Marina Tsvetaeva
Thirtieth anniversary
Union - hold on, scoundrels!
I know your wrinkles,
Flaws, scars, teeth -
The slightest of chipping!
(Teeth - Kohl verse did not go!)
- Marina Tsvetaeva
Rhetorical appeal is a stylistic figure: an appeal that is conditional. In it the main role is played not by the text, but by the intonation of the circulation. Rhetorical appeal is often found in monologues. The main task of rhetorical treatment is the desire to express the attitude to a particular person or object, to give it a characteristic, to strengthen the expressiveness of speech. Rhetorical appeal never requires an answer and does not carry a question.
The rhetorical appeal, as well as the rhetorical exclamation and the rhetorical question, are peculiar revolutions of speech, enhancing its expressiveness. A distinctive feature of these revolutions is their conventionality, that is, the use of interrogative or exclamatory intonation in cases that do not essentially require it, making the phrase in which these revolutions are used takes on an especially underlined hue that enhances its expressiveness.
An example of a rhetorical appeal:
And you, arrogant descendants
Famous meanness glorified fathers,
Fifth slave trampled wreckage
Game happiness offended childbirth!
- “Death of a Poet”, M. Yu. Lermontov
Simplóka (from other Greek συμπλοκή - interlacing) is a stylistic figure of repetition of words in adjacent verses or phrases. As a rule, it is defined as a combination of epiphora and anaphora, that is, a repetition of the beginning and end with a variation of the middle [1] , for example, “There was a birch in the field / The curly stood in the field”.
Kvyatkovsky's poetic dictionary [2] calls a simplok and an opposite figure when the beginnings and ends of periods differ with the same middle: “Young people everywhere have a road, / Old people everywhere have honor” (V. Lebedev-Kumach).
Soleticism (from the ancient Greek σολοικισμός (Latin soloecismus ), from the name of the ancient Greek Σόλοι (Latin Soloe )) is a syntactically incorrect turn of speech that does not distort the meaning.
The term "Solecism" was produced by antique rhetoric from the name of the city of Sola, a Greek colony in Asia Minor in Cilicia. The city was founded by settlers from Athens under Solon, but the descendants of the settlers, mingling with the local population, lost the purity of the Attic dialect of the ancient Greek language. The term is found in Quintillian, Aulus Gellius and other ancient Roman authors.
In rhetoric, sotsializm called the wrong language in general. In linguistics, a narrower meaning is usually used, in which the so-called incorrect syntactic turn is used, an error in the choice of grammatical forms for any syntactic construction.
Solecism, as a rule, occurs when the rules for approving members of a sentence or the rules for agreeing main and subordinate sentences are violated.
Examples of violation of the approval of members of the proposal:
An example of a violation of the approval of proposals:
An example of other solicisms in Russian:
Inconsistent verbal acceptance:
An example in French:
An example in English:
Soletsimizm characteristic of colloquial speech, colloquial speech, dialect speech, but they are avoided in the literary language. Therefore, Solecism is used as a rhetorical figure to imitate a low or colloquial style.
Pleonasm, ellipsis, enallag and anacoluf (the latter largely coincides with solecism in the linguistic sense) were included in the number of solerisms in a broad (rhetorical) sense.
This term has other meanings, see Tautology.
Tautology (from other Greek ταυτολογία: ταυτο - “the same” and from λόγος - thought, reason or speech) is a rhetorical figure that represents an unreasonable repetition of the same (or one-root) or similar in meaning.
Unlike pleonasm, tautology is not justified either from a logical or an emotional point of view, repetition goes without any purpose. Pleonasm, however, sins only against brevity: for example, instead of “they will not return back” (V. A. Zhukovsky), it suffices to say “they will not return”, but the addition here reinforces the poetic side of speech, increases its expressiveness. In other words, tautology is an excessive pleonasm.
Among the ancient Greeks, tautology was called perissology (ancient Greek περιττος is superfluous) and battology (on behalf of the Cyprian king Butt, zaika, repeating words, or the poet Butt, a fan of unnecessary lengths).
Silence is an intentional cliff statement, conveying the emotion of speech and suggesting that the reader will guess the unspoken. The default is widely used when manipulating the mind, but is carried out covertly. The writer using this stylistic technique is limited to a hint.
Although he was afraid to say
It was not difficult to guess
When b ... but the heart is younger than
The more fearful, the more severe ...- Mikhail Lermontov. Ishmael Bay
I do not like, oh Rus, your timid
Thousands of years of slave poverty.
But this cross, but this white bucket ...
Humble, dear features!- Ivan Bunin. In the forest, in grief, spring, alive and sonorous ...
Chiasm (from ancient Greek χισμός) is a rhetorical figure consisting in a cruciform alteration of the sequence of elements in two parallel rows of words (for example, the phrase of K. S. Stanislavsky: “Know how to love art in yourself, and not yourself in art”). One of the first short descriptions of chiasma is found in the anonymous "Rhetoric to Gerennia" (I century BC). The term “chiasm” appears later and is associated with the cruciform shape of the Greek letter “chi”.
In the classification of EM Beregovsky three types of chiasma are distinguished:
Exergasy is a rhetorical figure that consists of adding synonymic expressions to a phrase or a turn. Exergasy, like synonymy, is used to clarify the meaning of a phrase, but also to increase the emotional stress of speech.
This term has other meanings, see Ellipsis (meanings).
Ellipsis (from the Greek Greek ἔλλειψις - lack) in linguistics is the intentional omission of words that are irrelevant to the meaning of expression. It is also used as a rhetorical figure of conversational style [1] .
The existence of an ellipse can often be guessed exclusively from the context, therefore some linguists attribute it to the category of one of the unproductive methods of compressive word formation.
There are two types of ellipse:
1. The substantive ellipsis (substantivizing): free-kick> free-kick
2. Adjective ellipsis (de-objectiveizing): garden scarecrow> scarecrow
Champagne! [meaning “Bring a bottle of champagne!”] (A. Chekhov)
Day on a dark night in love,
In winter, spring is in love,
Life is death ...
And you? .. You're in me!- G. Heine. Leave me!
An ellipse attached to an expression causes a change in the fractional status of another word subordinate to the first. For example, in the expression champagne wine the word wine is usually superfluous, because with other nouns champagne is not used (except in the feminine), and champagne takes on the role of a noun.
The syntactic role can be added to the word - the word is no longer used in the original partial context. For example, when skipping the second word in st. Slav.droug chlov ("another person"), the first word adjective ceased to be, becoming a noun friend .
There are many types of ellipsis recognized by linguists. Some of them:
This term has other meanings, see Emphasis.
Emphasis , emphatic (from the ancient Greek. Ἔμφασις "expressiveness") - emotional and expressive selection of any significant element of the utterance or its semantic shades. The word is also understood in a broader sense: as an enhancement of the general emotional expressiveness of speech, achieved by changing the intonation and the use of rhetorical figures, or as a special rhetorical figure, which is that the word is given special expressiveness. [one]
Ways to implement emphyse may be as follows.
An example of emphyse: “A hero is needed here, and he is only a man ” (that is, a coward).
Also, emphasis can be used to underline the fact that a rare variant of the meaning of a word is used. For example: " Choosing an amulet completely clean ..." (S. Lukyanenko "Night Watch"). The word “choose” (in the corresponding declination) is in italics, because it is used not in the meaning of “make a choice”, but in the meaning of “empty”, “pick up all the contents” - it means that the character took the entire stock of magic from the amulet.
This term has other meanings, see Epiphora.
Epiphora (from ancient Greek ἐπιφορά - bringing, adding) is a rhetorical figure consisting in the repetition of the same words at the end of adjacent segments of speech. Often, epiphora is used in poetic speech (very often in folklore) in the form of identical or similar stanzas (for example, Alexander Gladkov's poetic play “Once upon a time” and the same song from the film “Hussar Ballad”).
The opposite of epifor is anaphora.
Festons, all festoons: a scape of festoons, festoon on the sleeves, epaulets of festoons, below the festoons, everywhere festochiki.
- N.V. Gogol. Dead Souls
And justice itself is the law of time, so that it devours its children, - so preached insanity.
Morally everything is distributed according to law and punishment. Ah, where is the deliverance from the flow of things and from the punishment of "existence"? So preached insanity.
Can there be deliverance if there is an eternal right? Ah, the motionless stone "was": all punishments should be eternal. So preached insanity
- Nietzsche. So said Zarathustra
My name is youth without a bush,
I really don't care.
But do not call a coward ...
Once upon a time ... Once upon a time ...
The other mustache twists fiercely
Bottles all looks to the bottom,
But he is only a copy of the hussar ...
Once upon a time ... Once upon a time ...
Someone swears passion ardent,
But if wine is drunk,
All his passion at the bottom of the bottle ...
Once upon a time ... Once upon a time ...
Loved the sea knee-deep,
I'm with them at the same time
But guarding all treason ...
Once upon a time ... Once upon a time ...
This term has other meanings, see Trop (music).
Trop (from ancient Greek. Τρόπος - a turn) is a rhetorical figure, word or expression used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, the artistic expression of speech. Trails are widely used in literary works, oratory and in everyday speech.
The delineation of the tropes from the figures is not always unambiguous, the classification of some figures of speech (such as epithet, comparison, paraphrase, hyperbole, litho) causes controversy in this question [1] . M. L. Gasparov regards the trails as a whole as a kind of figures - “figures of rethinking”.
There is no generally accepted tropic classification.
Starting from the second half of the 20th century, trails are actively explored within the framework of the structuralist paradigm and neoriticism by such scholars as R. Jacobson, R. Barth, C. Todorov, representatives of the Liège school, and others. Three main paths were identified: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche. Attempts to reveal one original trail, to which the other two could be reduced, yielded contradictory results. Thus, the Liege School and C. Todorov see such a primary path in a synecdoche, and U. Eco - in a metaphor [2] .
The main types of trails:
Allegory (from other Greek ἀλληγορία - allegory) is an artistic comparison of ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
Like trope, allegory is used in verses, parables, morality. It originated on the basis of mythology, is reflected in folklore, and received its development of the visual arts. The main way to portray an allegory is to generalize human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects that acquire a figurative meaning.
Example: justice - Themis (woman with weights).
The nightingale is sad at the fallen rose,
sings hysterically over the flower.
But the garden scares the tears,
who loved the rose secretly.- Aydin Khanmagomedov. Two Love [1]
Allegory - artistic isolation of extraneous concepts, with the help of specific ideas. Religion, love, soul, justice, discord, glory, war, peace, spring, summer, autumn, winter, death, etc., are depicted and presented as living beings. The qualities and appearance attached to these living creatures are borrowed from the actions and consequences of the isolation that is contained in these concepts, for example, the separation of battle and war is indicated by means of military tools, seasons - by flowers, fruits or occupations corresponding to them, impartiality - by scales and blindfolds, death - by clepsydra and braids.
That with quivering gusto,
then a friend in the arms of the soul,
like a lily with poppy,
kisses the heart of the soul.- Aydin Khanmagomedov. Kiss Pun [2]
Obviously, allegories lack the full plastic brightness and completeness of artistic creations, in which the concept and image completely coincide with each other and are produced by creative fantasy inseparably, as if fused together by nature. The allegory fluctuates between the concept of reflection and the ingeniously invented individual shell of it, and as a result of this half-heartedness it remains cold.
Allegory, corresponding to the image-rich way of representing Eastern peoples, occupies a prominent place in the art of the East. On the contrary, it is alien to the Greeks with the wondrous ideality of their gods, understood and imagined as living personalities. Allegory appears here only in the Alexandrian time, when the natural formation of myths ceased and the influence of Eastern ideas became noticeable [ source not specified 519 days ] . Its domination in Rome is more noticeable. But most of all she ruled in the poetry and art of the Middle Ages from the end of the XIII century, at the time of fermentation, when the naive life of fantasy and the results of scholastic thinking mutually touch and, as far as possible, try to penetrate into each other. So - with most troubadours, with Wolfram von Eschenbach, with Dante. Feuerdank, a sixteenth-century Greek poem describing the life of Emperor Maximilian, can serve as an example of allegorical epic poetry.
Allegory has a special use in the animal epic. It is very natural that various arts consist in essentially different relations to allegory. The hardest thing to avoid is modern sculpture. Being always doomed to the image of a person, she is often forced to give as an allegorical isolation what the Greek sculpture could give in the form of an individual and complete way of life of a god.
In the form of an allegory, written, for example, John Bunyan’s novel Pilgrim's Journey to the Heavenly Country, Vladimir Vysotsky’s song “Truth and Lie” [3] .
Antiphrasis (Greek ἀντίφρασις - the use of a word in the opposite sense) is a type of trail, a stylistic device consisting in the use of a word or phrase in the opposite sense, usually ironic.
Antiphrasis is usually built on the contrast of the formally approving meaning or praise of a used word or expression with a condemning or disapproving meaning of a statement, for example:
We know: eternal love
Lives hardly three weeks.
- A.S. Pushkin, "Coquette"
Sometimes an antiphrasis is used as praise in the form of a friendly or rudely humorous reproach or reprimand, for example:
My tragedy is over; I read it out loud, alone, and clapped my hands, and shouted, ah yes Pushkin! ah yes son of a bitch!
- From the letter of A.S. Pushkin to Peter Vyazemsky on the completion of the work on the tragedy “Boris Godunov”, 1825
Asteism (literally "capitalism", from the Greek. Asteismos ; from asteios , from asty - "city" [1] , corresponds to the Latin. Urbanitas ) - the view of irony as a path. Initially, it was an elegant, urban appeal, witty conversation, ridicule [2] . Over time, in the rhetoric, the term asteism began to denote a technique in which, while being meaningfully silent about something, they try, with an eloquent silence, so to speak, to draw even more attention to the subject. Over time, asteism began to be interpreted as ironic (self) glorification, grotesque (self) criticism, or self-deprecating words for hidden self-praise. Asteticism is similar to antiphasis, but differs from it in more open "aggressiveness", by deliberate, exaggerated criticism. Asteism as trails is revealed when analyzing literary works of various authors:
“Right,” answered the landowner, “my such inexperienced widow's work!” Better, I'll take the time, maybe the merchants will come, and I will apply to the prices.
"Quoi! Encore un nouveau chef-d'œuvre! N'était-ce pas assez de ceux que vous avez déjà publiés? Vous voulez donc désespérer tout fait vos rivaux?" "Really! Another masterpiece! Really not enough ones already published? You probably want to bring your rivals into complete despair? "
When characterizing asteism, the trail usually uses the narrow meaning of the word, since in the broad sense asteism can mean any elegant joke in general. In the narrow meaning, asteism is defined as a compliment, most often to oneself, moreover, made in the form of grotesque self-criticism, exaggerated self-deprecation. In general, this is praise in the form of censure [4] , described as “self-deprecation more than pride”. It should be noted that the implementation of asteism often requires contextual "transparency", as the implementation of antiphrase. Otherwise, asteism can be perceived as a gang [5] .
Anthonomasyya , antonomasy (from ancient Greek. Ἀντονομασία - renaming) - trope, expressed in replacing the name or name by indicating some significant feature of the object or its relation to something. The Latin name for the same poetic path or, in a different perspective, a rhetorical figure, pronomination (from the Latin. Pronominatio ).
An example of a replacement with an essential feature of the subject: “our everything” instead of “Pushkin”. An example of replacing the indication of a relationship: “the author of“ War and Peace ”” instead of “Tolstoy”; “Peleev's son” instead of “Achilles”. Especially often used in the Scandinavian skaldic poetry (see kenningi): “mother of thunderstorms of giants” - Frigg (mother of Thor).
In addition, the replacement of a common noun by a proper name (the use of a proper name in the nominal sense) is also called an antonomasy.
Antonosia in both cases is a special type of metonymy.
I slipped away from Aesculapius
Thin, shaven - but alive;
His agonizing paw
Does not over me.
- A. S. Pushkin. NN (V.V. Engelhardt) [1]
We drank songs, ate dawns
and meat of future times, and you -
with unnecessary cunning in the eye
solid dark Semenovs [2] .
- N.N. Aseev [3]
This term has other meanings, see Hyperbole.
Hyperball (from the ancient Greek ὑπερβολή “transition; excessiveness, excess; exaggeration”) is a stylistic figure of explicit and intentional exaggeration, with the aim of enhancing the expressiveness and underlining the said thought. For example: "I said this a thousand times" or "we have enough food for half a year."
Hyperbola is often combined with other stylistic techniques, giving them the appropriate color: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors, etc. (“the waves rose in the mountains”). The character or situation depicted may also be hyperbolic. Hyperbola is also peculiar to the rhetorical, oratorical style, as a means of a pathetic rise, as well as a romantic style, where the pathos is in contact with irony. Of the Russian authors, Gogol is especially inclined to hyperbole, and Maypolevsky is of apt.
Give me a foothold and I will move the Earth.
Original text (ancient-Greek.) [Show]
- Archimedes
What a lump, huh? What a hardened man!
- V.I. Lenin. Leo Tolstoy as a mirror of the Russian revolution
Marx's teaching is omnipotent because it is true.
- V.I. Lenin. Three sources and three components of Marxism
Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers in such wide folds that if they were inflated, then the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.
- N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich fell out with Ivan Nikiforovich
Million cossack caps suddenly poured into the square. ...
... for one handle of my saber they give me the best herd and three thousand sheep.
- N. Gogol. Taras Bulba
About our meeting - what can I say,
I was waiting for her, as they are waiting for natural disasters ,
But you and I immediately began to live,
Without fear of harmful consequences! (2 times)
...
What I asked for - I did in a flash,
I wanted to do marriage every night ,
Because of you I jumped under the train ,
But, thank God, not very well ... (2 times)
... And if you were waiting for me that year,
When I was sent to the cottage [1] , -
I'd steal the whole sky for you
And two Kremlin stars to boot! (2 times)
And I swear - the last one will be a reptile! -
Do not lie, do not drink - and I will forgive treason!
And I will give you the Bolshoi Theater
And Small sports arena ! (2 times)
But now I'm not ready for the meeting -
I'm afraid of you, I'm afraid of intimate nights,
As residents of Japanese cities
Afraid of repeating Hiroshima . (2 times)
- Vladimir Vysotsky
Four years we have been preparing to escape
Hurches three tons we saved ...
Dysphemism (Greek δυσφήμη - “impropriety”) is a crude or indecent designation of an initially neutral concept with the purpose of giving it a negative semantic load or just to enhance speech expressiveness, for example: die instead of die , face instead of face .
Dysphemisms may take root in the language as neutral names, cf., for example, Fr. tête , ital. testa 'head' testa 'pot' with neutral caput .
The term “dysphemism” is sometimes used as a synonym for the word “cacophemism”. However, their use should not be reduced to rudeness and lack of culture. Dysphemisms are widely used in traditional cultures (East Asian, etc.) to avoid the evil eye: in relation to their own children, women, valuable items. Often dysphemisms hide the boundary between superstition and polite self-deprecation.
Iran (from the ancient Greek εἰρωνεία “pretense”) is a pathway in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (contrasted) with the meaning explicit. The irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems.
Irony is the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: “Well, you are a brave man!”, “Umen-umen ...” Here, positive statements have negative overtones.
Irony is a category of aesthetics and originates from the tradition of ancient rhetoric. It was the ancient irony that gave birth to the European ironic tradition of the new time, which received particular development since the last third of the XIX century. Irony, as a means of comic presentation of material, is a powerful tool for the formation of the literary style, built on contrasting the literal meaning of words and statements to their true meaning (“The bullet was poisoned after falling into the leader’s poisonous body” - George Alexandrov). The elementary model of the ironic style is the structurally expressive principle of various speech techniques that help to give the content its opposite context or the ideologically-emotionally revealing meaning. In particular, the method of self-irony is used to relieve the pretentiousness or pomposity of the narrative, which allows you to convey the author's attitude to the literal description of the plot moment (“My face, if only it listened to me, expressed sympathy and understanding” - Rex Stout). As a veiled demonstration of the negative position, the irony method of mockery is used (“The Sarajevo attempt filled the police administration with numerous victims” - Yaroslav Hasek), a false statement is used to destroy any attribute of the public consciousness (“Lenin is still alive than all the living, only you can’t touch it” - Viktor Nyuhtilin), and false denial - to confirm the real truths ("There is nothing easier than to quit smoking - I personally managed to do this about thirty times" - Mark Twain). The ironic reception of excellence often becomes the dominant way of ridiculing the heroes of a literary work through an outwardly neutral statement of their characteristics (“He proudly felt that twenty-nine months of military service didn’t weaken his ability to be trapped” - Joseph Heller’s use of ironic indulgence assessing the significance of the characters (“If an artist wants to really inflate the prices of his paintings, I can only give him one piece of advice: let his hands INH "- Kurt Vonnegut). An effective ironic way of short forms of the genre of humor is the connotational clause, calculated on the quick reaction of the reader or viewer (“Doctors fought for his life, but he survived” - Mikhail Zhvanetsky).
More rigid, uncompromising forms of irony can be considered sarcasm and grotesque.
Direct irony is a way to belittle, give a negative or ridiculous character to the described phenomenon.
Anti -irony is the opposite of direct irony and allows you to present an object of anti-irony undervalued.
Self -irony - irony, aimed at his own person. In self-irony and anti-irony, negative statements may imply the opposite (positive) overtones. Example: “Where can we, fools, drink tea”.
Socratic irony is a form of self-irony, built in such a way that the object to which it is addressed seems to come to its own logical conclusions and finds the hidden meaning of an ironic statement following the premises of the “not knowing the truth” subject.
The ironic worldview is a state of mind that allows you to not take for granted the common allegations and stereotypes, and not take too seriously the various “generally accepted values”.
According to the poetess Yunna Moritz, “with irony and self-irony in Russian culture, literature has always been excellent, in this sense we have all the Russian classics - just brilliant” [1] . According to David Remnick, traditional culture in Moscow is based on fatalism and irony [2] .
This article is about a play on words; about the humorous magazine magazine, see: Pun (TV magazine).
Pickle (fr. Calembour ) - literary reception using in the same context different meanings of one word or different words or phrases similar in sound [1] .
In a pun or two words standing next to each other, a third is given in the pronunciation, or one of the words has a homonym or a polysemantic one. The pun effect, usually comic (humorous), lies in the contrast between the meaning of equally sounding words. At the same time, in order to make an impression, a pun should strike with an unknown collation of words [2] . It is a special case of a play on words (many authors consider “play on words” and “pun” as synonyms). A concept close in meaning is the concept of paronomasia.
The origin of the word "pun" is controversial [3] . Historically there were different spellings ( calambour, calembourg ). The German word Kalauer , also of unclear origin, is associated with it. There are only a number of historical jokes that connect this word with the name of the city Kalemberg, then with various anecdotal personalities. At Kalemberg, it was as if German pastor Weigand von Teben lived in Luther’s time and was famous for joking [2] .
According to other versions, the pun was named after Count Calanber or Calemberg from Westphalia, who lived under Louis XIV in Paris or at the court of Stanislav Leschinsky in Lesheville, or after the apothecary Kalanbur who lived in Paris.
There is also an assumption that the word "pun" comes from the Italian expression "calamo burlare" - joke with a pen. F. Shawl and after him Littrevyvodili the word “pun” from the Der Pfaffe von Kahlenberg jokes around 1500, [4] .
The French playwright Sardou discovered the root of this word in a manuscript compilation composed by the playwright
продолжение следует...
Часть 1 Rhetorical figures. Speech figures.
Часть 2 Parcel Examples - Rhetorical figures. Speech figures.
Часть 3 Using - Rhetorical figures. Speech figures.
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Rhetoric
Terms: Rhetoric