HISTORY OF RHETORIC AND ITS THEORY

1. ORATOR ART OF ANCIENT GREECE

2. RHETORIC OF PLATO

3. RHETORIC OF ARISTOTLE

4. ELLINISTIC RHETORIC

5. RHITORIC OF TSICERON

6. RHETORIC OF QUINTILIAN

7. RHETORIC OF THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE EPOCH OF REVIVAL

INTRODUCTION

Ancient theories of eloquence are included in the golden fund of rhetorical science. And, of course, to understand the essence of eloquence, it is necessary first of all to get acquainted with the views of the ancient rhetoricians.

In the ancient rhetorical science can be called the names of researchers, who occupied a leading place in the development of the theory of eloquence. These are Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintillian and some others. It is their theoretical research that constitutes the platform on which further research was based.

Oratory of Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of eloquence, although oratory was known in Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and India. But it was in ancient Greece that it was rapidly developing and systematic works on the theory of oratorical art first appeared . The beginning of the formation of rhetoric as a science was laid by the sophists , who , being themselves outstanding masters of eloquence, taught others to this art . They founded schools where, for a fee, anyone could learn the rules for constructing speech, the proper manner of pronouncing it, and the effective presentation of material. Sophists belonged to Athens in the second half of the 5th century. BC. School of philosophers, educators, created an unprecedented cult of words and rhetoric. Sophists masterfully mastered all forms of oratory, the laws of logic, the art of argument, the ability to influence the audience. Speech (logos) becomes the object of study, and rhetoric - the “queen of all arts” , whose training has become the highest degree of ancient education. And it is not by chance, since a special atmosphere has been created in the state of slave-owning democracy for the heyday of eloquence, which becomes an essential moment of public life and an instrument of political struggle. Owning them was considered a necessity.

Gradually, a practical direction emerged - drawing up speeches for the needs of citizens; practitioners' statements appeared on the language and style of speeches, which then served Plato, Aristotle and other theorists as the basis for systematization , further development and deepening of these judgments, turning them into theory.

Successes in eloquence, in the opinion of the sophists, are connected with the enormous work on the technique of speech, on the culture of speech. However, speech is something individual, having peculiar attributes associated with studies, talent, and the spiritual qualities of the speaker. The qualities of speech and strict composition were associated with the harmony of man, and semantics, the meaning of the word - with the spiritual world.

Although logical reasoning is part of the means of persuasion, in the opinion of sophists, a brilliant paradox is often the unexpected heuristic technique (heuristics is the art of arguing, controversy), rich speech instrumentation can impress the audience more effectively. If we wanted to briefly express the speaker’s task in the opinion of the sophists, we would say: he should hypnotize the listeners.

Thus, those basic views on eloquence that were formed among the sophists reflected their philosophical views on human essence. This created the prerequisites for the theories of Plato and Aristotle.

RHETORIC OF PLATO

... The theoretical developments of Plato (c. 427 - c. 347 BC) were undoubtedly a step forward. We can already speak of a more systematic theory of oratory, which had a tremendous impact on practicing speakers and theorists of the time, which was expressed both in the practical development of his theory and in its further development.

Features philosophical views of Plato reflected in his theory of eloquence. In general, all human behavior is analyzed in his philosophical works, in particular in the dialogue “Fedr” (in it he also expounds the theory of eloquence).

Plato approaches eloquence through the prism of her philosophical views: " Every speech should be composed as if a living being - it must have a body with its head and legs, and its torso and limbs must fit together and correspond to the whole . "

According to Plato, the art of the speaker depends largely on the ability, ability , covering everything with a common look, to build separate objects of speech to a single common idea and to divide everything into types, into natural components, and also be able to build a private ( methods of induction and deduction ).

In the dialogue "Fedr" Plato offers a composition of speech: introduction, presentation and evidence, evidence, plausible conclusions.

He believed that the speaker of oratory should know well the nature of each thing and its ideas, and through this knowledge to strive for the knowledge of the soul, to know its forms and what speech and how it affects the soul. He must relate the types of speech and the types of the soul of the listener, establish the correspondence of each type of speech to each type of soul. To know what soul what speeches and for what reason will certainly be able to convince, and what - no.

In highlighting the emotional persuasiveness of speech (impact on the soul), Plato does not consider the logical evidence that has faded into the background. Therefore, he is convinced that in the courts "absolutely no one cares about the truth, only conviction is needed." The speaker should, according to Plato, say goodbye to the truth, but build his speech so that it seemed plausible to the listeners.

Some questions of eloquence, his essence, his goals are examined in Plato and in the dialogue “Gorgiy". In the conversation that arose between Socrates and Gorgias and their students, a number of definitions of rhetoric are given as a process - from broad to narrow.

Gorgiy - the main protagonist of the dialogue, expressing the ideas of Plato, believes that eloquence constitutes the greatest good and gives people both freedom and authority over other people. He says that rhetoric is “the ability to convince with a word and judges in court, and counselors in the Council, and people in the National Assembly, and in any other assembly of citizens. Possessing such power, you will keep the doctor in slavery, and the gymnastics teacher ... ” . So, eloquence is primarily connected with conviction, influence on the soul, on opinion. And the basic principle of eloquence as an art of persuasion, according to Plato, is to instill what is just and unjust, good and bad. In the dialogue, however, there are two types of conviction: one kind is associated with the message of faith without knowledge, the other - giving knowledge. Gorgiy and Socrates come to a dialogue in the conclusion that eloquence should use the first type of persuasion, that is, inspire faith without giving knowledge, without using objective evidence. Listeners must take on faith what the speaker will tell them in an emotional speech. "So, the speaker in the courts and other gatherings does not teach what is fair and what is not, but only inspires faith, and only."

Eloquence is a mastery of persuasion, inspiring faith in a just and unjust, and not teaching what is true and what is not.

Thus, it is not the evidence that serves as the basis of eloquence, but the emotional impact, emotional conviction, emotional suggestion. And this is the lack of Plato's theory. The desire for emotional suggestion led to a free interpretation of the fact as such and to its emotional evaluation, which was entirely dependent on the perception of this fact by the speaker and the audience.

In connection with the emotional impact of eloquence, Plato compares with other arts: music, poetry, theater. Therefore, rhetoric, like any true art, according to Plato, is a creative activity, it brings emotions into a systematic, orderly state.

However, this creative activity requires careful preparation of the speaker. And here Plato supports the idea of ​​the Sophists, who also believed that a good speaker should work a lot on self-improvement and speeches. The philosopher repeatedly speaks of the need for every speaker to go through a special school of oratory, which would teach him to correctly and efficiently compose speeches.

Plato's arguments indicate; that he attached great importance to the technical side of speech, understanding the perfect technique of speech in close connection with the psychology of the listeners, considering the science of eloquence to be an important philosophical and psychological doctrine.

Summing up the analysis of Plato's rhetorical views, we can agree with A. F. Losev, who wrote: “The conclusion about Plato’s great interest in oratory, his constant inclination to build a theory of this art, is clear, although this theory is quite unsystematic in him” .

RHETORIC OF ARISTOTLE

A major cultural and scientific event was the appearance of Aristotle's “Rhetoric” (384-322 BC), which greatly developed Plato's theory of oratory.

Aristotle criticized the Platonic theory of disembodied forms ("ideas"), but he could not completely overcome Platonic idealism.

Aristotle puts the rhetoric into the general system of his doctrine, highlighting in it the theoretical part - the doctrine of being, the practical part - the doctrine of human activity and the poetic part - the doctrine of creativity. The rhetoric, according to Aristotle, is engaged in the allocation of methods of persuasion, the theoretical understanding of these methods.

Aristotle's “Rhetoric” composition is very clear. The first book tells about the place of rhetoric among other sciences , and generations of speeches stand out; the second book is devoted to passions, morals and general methods of proof ; the third book deals with problems of style and speech construction.

As Aristotle notes, the action of persuasive speech depends on three points: the moral character of the speaker, the quality of the speech itself, and the mood of the listeners. Thus, already in the teaching of Aristotle, a triad is singled out: the sender of speech - speech is the recipient of speech, which finds its development in modern research.

ELLINISTIC RHETORIC

The time of Plato and Aristotle in the history of Greek culture ends the period of the classics.

From the second half of the 5th century BC. begins a new period of ancient culture, called Hellenism (Hellen - Greek). Hellenistic rhetoric analyzed a large number of stylistic phenomena. She studied combinations of words, developed a doctrine about the qualities of speech, continued to deal with the problems of tropes, figures, styles in some treatises, however, at first, the attraction was rhetoric, refinement of expressions, complex phrases, “colors of eloquence”. This style of speech became known as the "Azian style" at the place of its origin and prosperity in Asia Minor. Representatives of this style preached pathos, rise, exaltation.

However, not all theorists and practitioners were supporters of the Azian style, his opponents were behind the classical patterns and severity of speech. The opposite Azian style became known as Attic, and its representatives became Atticists. They preached refined imagery and intellectuality of speech, which evoked certain associations in the listeners, thereby influencing them. Atticists were supporters of the purity of speech, by which its standard was meant, which was reduced to the correct choice of the word and morphological form. If a speaker followed these requirements, he could be considered an exemplary speaker, and his speeches were studied as patterns.

By the end of the III. BC e. supporters of Attism (classicism) won, although the struggle continued further in Rome. In the 1st c. BC. Cicero wrote two treatises: "Brutus" and "Orator", which, as it were, synthesize the Azian and Attic (classical) directions.

In the Letter to Pompey, Dionysius expresses his point of view on the style of speeches of some speakers. In particular, when analyzing Plato's speeches, Dionysius thinks that when Plato uses simple, artless and artless expressions, it sounds unusually pleasant; he uses well-known words, striving to clarity and ignoring all sorts of intricate ornaments. "His tongue keeps patina of antiquity and quietly exude something joyful, like a full-blown, full of fresh flower fragrance emanates from him like Donoso first breeze with fragrant meadows, and in his sladkozvuchii no pustozvonstva and its sophistication - theatricality "But when Plato falls into verbosity and aims expressed beautifully, his tongue gets worse, loses its strength and beauty, the Hellenic purity and seems to be more difficult.. All this obscures a thought that develops too slowly, which is why speeches containing numerous epithets, inappropriate metonymy, not following the analogy of metaphor, continuous allegories without a sense of proportion are especially harmful. Here the aesthetic views of Dionysius on the style of public speaking appeared.

Demetrius (c. 1 in. AD) is attributed to the essay "On Style". In this work, Demetrios develops two problems: the period, its structure and styles, their characteristics. The most important thing in this work is the study of styles. He identifies four basic styles: simple (or scanty), stately (or solemn), elegant (or sleek), powerful (or strong), as well as their possible combinations, which contain the characteristic features of a number of styles. So, elegant style, according to Demetrius, can connect with the simple and the sublime, powerful connects with the one and the other. ko sublime does not come into connection with a simple (or poor), as both of them are mutually exclusive. Demetrius introduces four styles instead of the traditional three, speaking in his treatise typical Hellenistic author who tends to classification detail, analyzing the rhetorical technique.

RITORIC CYTCERON

The greatest classicist of ancient eloquence and theorist of oratory was the ancient Roman orator and politician Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC). Three treatises on oratory reflect the rich experience of ancient rhetoric and his own practical experience of the largest Roman orator. These treatises - "About the orator", "Brutus, or about the famous orators", "Orator" - monuments of the ancient theory of literature, ancient humanism, which had a profound influence on all European culture.

In the theory of knowledge, Cicero examines questions about the highest good, about virtues as the only source of happiness, striving for perfection. Four virtues correspond to such striving: wisdom, justice, courage, moderation. His philosophical views formed the basis of his views on oratory.

What are the views of Cicero on oratory? Cicero's theory of eloquence occupies a middle position between Asianism and moderate classical attitism. In the treatise "On the Orator," he chooses the free form of philosophical dialogue , which allowed him to present the material in a problematic, controversial manner, giving and weighing all the pros and cons. Cicero says with regret that eloquence among all the sciences and the arts has the least representatives. And this is no accident. According to him, there are few good speakers, because eloquence is something that is harder than it seems. Eloquence is born from many knowledge and skills .

“In fact,” he writes, “because here it is necessary to assimilate a wide variety of knowledge, without which fluency in words is meaningless and ridiculous; it is necessary to give the beauty of the speech itself, and not only by selection, but also by the arrangement of words; and all the movements of the soul, which nature has endowed the human race, must be studied to the subtlety, because all the power and art of eloquence must be manifested in order to either calm or arouse the souls of the listeners. Humor and wit, education worthy of a free person, speed and brevity, both in reflection and in attack, imbued with subtle grace and good manners should join all this. In addition, it is necessary to know the whole history of antiquity in order to draw examples from it; You should also not miss acquaintance with the laws and civil rights. Do I still need to spread about the performance itself, which requires you to follow body movements, body gestures, facial expressions, sounds and voice tones? .. Finally, what can I tell about the treasury of all knowledge - memory? After all, it goes without saying that if our thoughts and words, found and thoughtful, are not entrusted to her for storage, then all the merits of the speaker, no matter how brilliant, will be wasted. "

So, Cicero believes that the basis of oratory is, above all, a deep knowledge of the subject; if behind the speech there is no deep content learned and learned by the speaker, then the verbal expression is idle chatter.

Eloquence is an art, but the hardest of the arts. He supports Plato and Aristotle in that the speech is impressive, responding to the feelings and thoughts of the listeners, is an inherent asset of the speaker. These judgments affected the psychological direction of research of oratory : “Who, for example, does not know that the highest power of the speaker is to kindle people's hearts with anger, or hatred, or grief, and from these impulses again turn to meekness and pity? But to achieve this with eloquence can only one who has deeply understood human nature, the human soul and the reasons that cause it to flare up and calm down. ”

Какие же условия для развития ораторского мастерства главные? Во-первых, природное дарование, живость ума и чувства, развитие и запоминание; во-вторых, изучение ораторского искусства (теория); в-третьих, упражнения (практика). Собственно, в данных утверждениях нет ничего нового, поскольку об этом писал еще Аристотель. Тем не менее Цицерон постарался синтезировать предшествующие теории, осмыслить их и на их основе создать обобщенную теорию ораторского искусства.

В первой части работы „Об ораторе" Цицерон старается создать идеал образованного оратора, оратора-политика, который был бы одновременно и философом, и историком, и знал бы право. История, философия и право были в то время общеобразовательными предметами. „ If we are talking about what is truly excellent, ”writes Cicero,“ then the palm belongs to the one who is both learned and eloquent. If we agree to call him both an orator and a philosopher, then there is nothing to argue about, but if these two concepts are divided, then philosophers will be less than orators, because a perfect orator has all the knowledge of philosophers, and the philosopher does not always have an orator's eloquence; and it is very unfortunate that philosophers neglect this, for it seems to be the end of their education . ”  This is how the image of an ideal speaker, educated and thus rising above ordinary consciousness, above the crowd, capable of leading it.

Цицерон отмечает, что все другие науки замкнуты каждая в себе самой, а красноречие, то есть искусство говорить толково, складно и красиво, не имеет никакой определенной области, границы которой сковывали бы его. Человек, который берется за ораторское искусство, должен уметь сказать решительно обо всем, что может встретиться в споре между людьми, иначе он не может посягать на звание оратора.

Цицерон по традиции, принятой в Греции, выделяет три рода речей: выступления на форуме, выступления в суде на гражданских делах и разбирательствах, хвалебные речи.

Обязанность оратора заключается в следующем: найти что сказать; найденное расположить по порядку; придать ему словесную форму; утвердить все это в памяти; произнести. Как видим, Цицерон придерживается установившейся классической схемы, согласно канону которой дается пятичастное деление риторического процесса, то есть весь путь „ от мысли к звучащему публичному слову".

Кроме того, в задачу оратора входит расположить к себе слушателей; изложить сущность дела; установить спорный вопрос; подкрепить свое положение; опровергнуть мнение противника; в заключение придать блеск своим положениям и окончательно низвергнуть положения противника.

According to Cicero, the most important thing for a speaker is a verbal expression of thought and speech. The first requirement for speech is the purity and clarity of the language (expression of thought). Purity and clarity are developed by teaching and improved by reading exemplary speakers and poets. For the purity of speech, it is necessary to perfectly select words and correctly use morphological forms. Speech clarity is associated with correct, normative pronunciation: the speaker must properly control the organs of speech,

breath and the very sounds of speech.

The word, the art of eloquence, is connected with the personality of the speaker, through them the mind, the erudition of the speaker, his knowledge, experience, as well as the will, which acts on the listeners through speech. Eloquence is the highest manifestation of the moral force of man. Consequently, the more moral a person is, the more eloquent, according to Cicero, is. In this case, eloquence is a blessing that the speaker uses for people. The power of oratory, according to Cicero, is necessarily combined with honesty and high wisdom. Только в таком случае речь может принести людям удовлетворение. Если же силой слова будут пользоваться люди нечестные, то это сильное оружие попадет в руки безумцам, которые могут направить его во зло. Философский подход к слову как благу и аду, как орудию честных и нечестных людей дает возможность взглянуть на теоретические изыскания Цицерона под углом гуманистического направления риторического искусства, его высшего назначения в качестве выразителя общегуманитарных идей. Не случайно Цицерон силу слова связывает с мудростью, отмечая, что эту науку мыслить и говорить, эту силу слова древние называли мудростью . „ Ведь в старину-то наука, - замечает он, - как видно, одинаково учила и красному слову, и правому делу; и не особые учителя, но одни и те же наставники учили людей и жить, и говорить ".

Автор в трактате „Об ораторе" основывался на некоторых теоретических исследованиях своих предшественников и на практических школьных учебниках, на греческой и римской ораторской традиции и лучших образцах ораторского искусства, на своем практическом опыте. Цицерона можно считать создателем своей риторической теории, которую он наиболее полно изложил в этом трактате.

Treatises "Brutus" and "Orator", written in 46 BC. e., he turns to Brutus, the representative of the new, attic current, defending his point of view. The purpose of these works is to substantiate the legitimacy and superiority of that oratorical ideal, the path to which Cicero indicated in the dialogue "On the Orator."

Обосновывает он это направление и с точки зрения исторической (в „Бруте"), и с точки зрения теоретической (в „Ораторе"). В диалоге „Брут, или О знаменитых ораторах" Цицерон перечисляет почти всех знаменитых ораторов - свыше двухсот - в хронологическом порядке с краткими характеристиками каждого. Для Цицерона римское красноречие - предмет национальной гордости, и он счастлив стать первым его историком. Этот труд - сочинение критическое и полемическое, имеющее своей целью не только характеристику ораторов, но главным образом защиту и развитие тех идей, которые высказаны в предыдущем трактате.

„ Оратор" - завершающее произведение риторической трилогии Цицерона. Вначале он рисует образ совершенного оратора, однако делает оговорку: „Создавая образ совершенного оратора, я обрисую его таким, каким, быть может, никто и не был" . Он выдвигает в качестве аргумента эллинистическое учение о трех стилях красноречия: высоком, среднем и простом. Простой стиль призван убедить, средний - усладить, высокий - взволновать и увлечь слушателя.

Цицерон видит красоту речи в ее свежести, сочности, нежности, учености, благородстве, пленительности, изяществе, страстности, причем „цветы слов и мыслей" должны распределяться в речи „с разбором". Словесные нагромождения, речь, расцвеченная чрезмерно яркими красками, не доставляет длительного удовольствия, пресыщает слушателей, раздражает их. По этим взглядам Цицерона нельзя было причислить ну к аттицистам, ни к азианцам. Он создал свой собственный стиль и требовал разумного употребления «цветов красноречия». Он продемонстрировал глубокое проникновение в сущность ораторского искусства, создав ораторскую теорию на основе своего богатого опыта. A brilliant theorist, he summarized and critically rethought views on the oratorical art of theorists and practitioners of eloquence, through careful analysis juxtaposed various points of view, created his theory.

RHETORIC OF QUINTILIAN

The famous Roman orator Mark Fabius Quintillian (35 - c. 100 CE) is the author of an extensive work in twelve books "Rhetorical instructions".

Quintilian's work is systematic and well thought out. Here the entire experience of classical rhetoric is taken into account and the own experience of a rhetoric teacher and a lawyer attorney is summarized. In this work, the philosopher notes that the work of the speaker is extensive and diverse, and never about him says everything, nevertheless he will try to present the best of traditional rules, and something unimportant will change, add something or reject.

This is a well- organized essay on oratory: it analyzes the theory and practice of Roman eloquence, examines the problems of pedagogy, ethics, describes the rhetorical schools, styles. Quintilian's work is the pinnacle of the study of oratory. Neither before nor after him were there any works that would give such a thorough theoretical analysis of eloquence.

First, Quintilian draws the image of an ideal speaker, continuing to develop this theme after Cicero: “ So, let the speaker be such that he can be justly called a sage; not only perfect in morals (for this, in my opinion, although others think differently, is not enough), but perfect in all knowledge, in all the qualities necessary for eloquence. "

Quintilian divides rhetoric as a science into three parts: in the first they talk about art, in the second about the artist, in the third about the work itself . “Art will be something that, according to the rules, should learn, and this makes science speak well; the artisan is the one who has comprehended this art, i.e. speaker whose purpose is to speak well. The work is what the master is doing, that is, good speech. ”

  Here Quintilian repeats Cicero's opinion: only a kind and honest person has true eloquence. Actually, this opinion was common in ancient Rome, for Quintilian refers to others who adhered to it. He writes that rhetoric consists in ability and power to convince. This definition, Quintillian notes, comes from Isocrates (rhetoric is the mastermind of persuasion). The same opinion is shared by Cicero. The same flaw in the definition of Aristotle, who said that rhetoric is the ability or the power to invent everything that can convince in speech. The author criticizes these definitions, which are also picked up by the textbooks of eloquence. He offers a different definition, making a reservation that it is found in others: rhetoric is the science to speak well.

Quintilian asks the question: Does natural talent or teaching promote eloquence? It is impossible to become a speaker without the help of both. He notes: “ In a word, nature is substance, and science is an artist: this gives a look or an image, and that one accepts. Art without substance means nothing, substance and without art has its price; but an excellent finish is better than the most precious substance . "But still, Quintilian believes that the rules alone cannot make the person who studied them speak. In the chapter" On the abundance of words "he spells the idea that the speaker must constantly increase the active supply words, however, this does not mean that the speaker should use them for unceasing chatter. Hard selection of the right words from a rich vocabulary should be a constant concern of the speaker. The top of the oratorical skill, according to Quintillian, is the ability to speak without preparing, and this requires great knowledge and a variety of skills.

So, the Work of Quintillian is a systematic and rigorously thought out statement of rhetorical teaching, taking into account the achievement of theoretical rhetoric and the experience of classical eloquence. He argues that two things are necessary for oratory: learning and following certain rules. According to the scientist, the specificity of oratory is to convince with the help of beautiful speech. Rhetoric is an art, one gift of nature for which is too little, it is necessary to learn and develop it. The main goal of the speaker is to intervene in the spiritual world of listeners with the help of this art. Quintillian extols clarity, purity, and correctness of speech, while decorations can perform their function only if they correspond to the subject of speech and the purpose of the speech.

RHETORIC OF THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE EPOCH OF REVIVAL

Introduction

The ancient theorists laid the foundation for the science of oratory, began to develop its theory, the elements of which are used until this very day, began to create a teaching methodology. Antique rhetoric has developed as a normative discipline and was among the seven "chosen sciences."

The main feature of medieval culture is its deep and very complex relationship with religion. In the Middle Ages, the church was the largest feudal landowner. She held a dominant position in the economy, politics, ideology. Religion served to justify and strengthen the feudal system. All social institutions, philosophy, science, education, art were subordinated to theology . Ideas that were not consistent with the teachings of the church were not recognized, every living, free thought was suppressed. This slowed down, kept the development of the spiritual life of medieval society. The system of religious ideology has left its mark on all the achievements of that time, including the oratory.

As A.G. Timofeev in his "Essays on the history of eloquence," "medieval eloquence could not have the creative power of true art, but it had to remain on the basis of pure rhetoric, live in one external form, in the bizarre treatment which then saw the essence of eloquence. Orator had no place in public life. ” The main type was spiritual eloquence, which became a powerful tool for the church to protect and strengthen its position and a powerful means of influencing the masses.

The ministers of the church had to retell religious doctrines, interpret biblical legends, educate parishioners in the spirit of humility and humility. The main method of influencing listeners is not persuasion, but suggestion. Homiletics, the science of Christian church preaching, begins to develop.

Among the famous religious preachers include Bishop of Caesarea in Asia Minor Basil the Great (c. 330-379); Bishop of Constantinople John Zlato mouth (c. 350-407), whose name has become a household name for the eloquent speaker; Bishop of Hippon in North Africa, St. Augustine (354–430), who used the achievements of formal rhetoric; the Spanish archbishop Isidore of Seville (560-635), the Anglo-Saxon chronicler and monk Bede Honorable (673-735), who paid much attention to the figures and trails.

During the late Middle Ages, the speeches of the Dominican monastery in Florence Savonarola (1452-19898) had a tremendous influence on his contemporaries. He opposed the Medici tyranny, denounced the papacy, called on the church for asceticism. “Sometimes, going from the pulpit, he wrote, - I think to myself: it is better for me not to speak and not to preach about these things, but to remain at ease and leave everything to the will of God. But when I stand here again, I cannot overcome myself and act otherwise.

God's word becomes a fire in me that burns in my heart and burns me. ”

As one of his contemporaries noted, in the speeches of Savonarola "there is no plan, stairs, syllable decorations, grace, but the elemental force of thunder and lightning is felt in them."

With the advent of medieval universities in the XI-XII centuries, university eloquence was born, which also could not develop freely from the church. Scholasticism (from the Greek.scholastikos - school, scholar), religious philosophy dominated in science. The most characteristic features of it were the desire to rely on "authorities", mainly ecclesiastical, and complete disregard for experience. The scholastics drew their evidence primarily from the “holy scripture”.

The most vivid expression of scholasticism was found in the writings of a 13th-century Catholic theologian. Thomas Aquinas, who declared that all knowledge is sin, unless it is intended to know God.

According to researchers, science was in an enchanted circle of authority and traditions. An indicator of the scholar’s ​​scholarship was considered to be the knowledge of the greatest possible number of quotations of p ro and the opposition of any position. An important sign of scholarship was knowledge of the Latin language, the ability to use in his speech Latin words and expressions.

Lectures at universities were delivered by professors on large handwritten books in heavy covers. Typography was not yet there, therefore, in order to preserve books, they were often chained to the pulpit. The task of the lecturer was to comment on the read text to students.

Dogmatism, quotation, accountability, as well as the pursuit of external form, the game of logical concepts become the main methods of scholastic rhetoric.

The origin of capitalist relations in the depths of the feudal formation had a tremendous impact on the development of the entire cultural life of the countries of Western and Central Europe. A new stage in the development of world culture begins - the Renaissance.

The main expression of what happened in the culture of the greatest revolution is humanism (from Lat. Khoto - man, hiti s - human). The person as a person comes to the fore. His mind, will, abilities, moral qualities are valued, his right to freedom, independence, happiness regardless of his social status, belonging to a noble family is recognized. The beauty and dignity of a person, the strength of his mind and energy are affirmed.

The appeal to the great realistic heritage of antiquity was important for the formation of the Renaissance culture. Humanists have translated works of almost all philosophers, poets, orators; Many ancient works were freed from medieval distortions. Advanced people of the 14th — 15th centuries. They were convinced that only through the revival of ancient culture after many centuries of medieval barbarism and ignorance can one come to true human knowledge.

In the middle of the XV century. German inventor Gutenberg created a European method of printing, which has been used in many countries. The growth of typography contributed to the wide spread of ancient heritage and new humanistic ideas.

The revival freed oratory from religious and scholastic fetters and contributed to its further development. The leaders of the Reformation (Martin Luther in Germany; Jacques Calvin in France; Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland), as well as the leaders of the peasant wars (Guillaume Cal in France; John Ball and Tyler in England; Jan Hus and Jan Zizka) Czech Republic; Thomas Munzer in Germany and others.).

Secular character acquires judicial eloquence. Significantly strengthened the authority of Roman law. Huge influence and authority is acquired by Cicero, who has become an ideal for judicial figures to strive for. Appear works on the theory of judicial eloquence, for example, "Dialogue about the speakers" Loisele.

Trade, parliamentary, and military eloquence began to develop. Significantly expands the range of problems that have become the subject of public speaking. These are questions of politics, law, economics, morality, religion. The rhetoric departs from Latin textbooks, it is enriched with lively national speech.

Since the Renaissance, the dominant feature of all European national elements of the development of rhetoric, according to experts, is its "literary".

“Gradually, logical and proper artistic, stylistic trends in rhetoric are forming, which determined its on the one hand, to grammar, and on the other - to poetics.”

Oratory becomes integral