2 The emergence and history of rhetoric

Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of rhetoric, although it is known that in Egypt, Assyria and Babylon they knew about the skill of public speaking. But the first works on the theory of rhetoric appeared precisely in Hellas. The prerequisite for this was the formation of the V c. BC slave democracy - a social system characterized by relative publicity. Every citizen of the city of the polis could take part in solving social and political problems, addressing the performance directly to the National Assembly. Litigation was resolved in a democratic way: anyone could act as an accuser or help defendants defend themselves. In such a situation, the one who was able to draw the people to his side with a fiery speech was in an advantageous position. The ability to be an eloquent speaker becomes necessary for almost every person.

In the V century BC Sophists appeared (in translation - wise men) - philosophers, enlighteners and paid teachers of rhetoric. Possessing the gift of words, a developed culture of thinking, practical experience in preparing and giving speeches, the sophists taught their wards the ability to think and speak. In training, they used techniques such as observing the performances of the most experienced speakers, analysis of successes and defeats, organized verbal battles, competitions in wit. The merit of the Sophists is that they conducted practical training in preparing young people for life and activities as professional rhetoricians, and also in that they developed the fundamentals of the theory of eloquence and determined the content of teaching rhetoric. To achieve persuasiveness, as the sophists believed, can be skillfully composed speech, for which various techniques should be used: choose the optimal length of speech and phrases, care for harmonious sound, use special vocabulary, decorate speech using, for example, metaphor, antithesis, allegory, etc. .

Sophists believed that the gift of eloquence is not given to man at birth, but is acquired in teaching and work (“they are born as poets, they become speakers”). During training, the main attention was paid to the compilation of speeches, the art of argument, exercise of memory, and also studied literature and history in order to have material for victory in a dispute. The speeches of the sophistry teachers of Gorgius, the author of one of the first textbooks of eloquence, Prodik, Protagoras, and others, are exemplary in our time. The terminology proposed by the sophists has also been preserved. At the time of the sophists, rhetoric was "the queen of all sciences."

At the same time, however, the biggest flaw of the sophistic school should be considered its most basic task, formulated by one of the most famous sophists, Protagoras, as follows: the worst argument must be presented as the best by ingenious tricks in speech, in reasoning, taking care not of the truth, but of success in a dispute or a practical benefit. It is known that Protagoras himself was a victim of Evatla 's sophistry :

In ancient Greece there were schools of sophists, where young people could learn eloquence, oratory and law.

It is said that a young man by the name of Evatl once appeared to one sophist teacher Protagoras and asked the teacher to make him a good speaker, as he yearns to appear in a lawsuit as a defender or prosecutor.

According to the agreement concluded between them, Evatl should have paid 10 thousand drachmas for training only if he won his first trial. In case of loss of the first lawsuit, he was not obliged to pay at all.

However, having completed the training, Evatl did not become involved in litigation. As a result, he considered himself free from paying for his studies. It lasted for quite a long time, Protagoras' patience dried up, and he himself filed a lawsuit against his pupil. Thus, the first Evatla trial was to take place.

Protagor gave the following argument: “Whatever the court decision, Evatl will have to pay. He will either win his first process or lose. If he wins, he will pay under the contract, if he loses, he will pay by the court. ”

Evatl objected: “In neither case should I pay. If I win, I don’t have to pay by the court’s decision; if I lose, then by contract. ”

For neglecting the truth, the school of sophists criticized Socrates (470–399 BC), who considered truth to be the divine measure of all things. Socrates built his teaching activity (he taught to think, prove, speak) on the spoken word. This form went down in history under the name of " Socratic conversation " ("Socratic conversation"). The art of Socrates consisted in the ability to organize a conversation in such a way that it eventually led the disciples to find the truth. With a system of questions and answers, Socrates forced them to be convinced that even the truth, which is immutable at first glance, requires deep thought.

The thought of Socrates was recorded by his pupil Plato (427-347 BC). According to Plato, genuine eloquence is based on the knowledge of truth, which must be comprehended and form an opinion about it. And to instill this opinion in other people is possible only when you recognize a person’s soul. Plato founded the Academy, in which rhetoric was given a special place. She was considered the queen of all sciences, and her mastery was the highest degree of education.

Of particular importance in the development of rhetoric belongs to Aristotle (384–322 BC), who founded the Likey, where the leading subjects were philosophy and rhetoric. Aristotle presented his views on the theory of eloquence in the book "Rhetoric". In it, he gives the definition of rhetoric already mentioned above as the ability to “find possible ways of persuading about each given subject ...”. Having defined the goal, the author proceeds to methods of comprehending science. It shows that the following components are important for the success of speech: the character of the speaker himself, the characteristics of the listeners and the quality of speech. Thus, Aristotle displays a triad: the sender of speech - the speech itself is the receiver of speech . The main advantage of speech, according to Aristotle, is clarity. Much attention is paid in the book to the technical side of speech: the origin of the ways of persuasion, the essence and characteristics of the style of speech, its composition.

The idea that oratorical skills can be learned has been proved by Demosthenes (384–322 BC) as an example of his life. At the cost of tireless labor and his own efforts, he overcame his physical shortcomings. With the help of observations of speeches by experienced speakers, analysis of speeches and conversations, he managed to correct the mistakes of his first speeches. Historians write about the techniques of speech technique invented by Demosthenes: about imitation when making sounds (for example, the sound "p" is worked out when imitating a growling puppy), about declamation in front of a mirror, about developing "long" breathing through exercise (for example, running, climbing the mountain), about strengthening the muscles of the speech apparatus and improving diction (the story of Demosthenes training his lips and tongue with the help of sea pebbles, with which he filled his mouth and made speeches to the seething sea), etc.

The eloquence of ancient Rome developed under the influence of the Greek heritage and reached a particular heyday during the power of the Roman Republic. In the II. BC in Rome there were grammar schools for boys who took a course of humanitarian training in order to devote themselves in the future to the activities of a political or judicial speaker. The training was built in several stages: in the school, the writer was taught reading; in grammar school - writing; and at the highest level — in the rhetorical’s school — they instilled eloquence skills, mastered the theory, and practiced making speeches on a given topic from history, mythology, literature, and public life.

The peak of the development of the oratory of ancient Rome is the work of Mark Tullius Cicero (106–43 BC). Cicero presented his views on rhetorical science in the Books On the Orator, where the image of the ideal speaker and philosopher is presented, Brut, or On Famous Orators, the history of eloquence, the Orator, which addresses issues of speech style and ways to achieve success of a speech.

In the treatises, a program for the preparation of this speaker, who has a deep knowledge of the subject and has mastered the theory of eloquence, is developed. According to Cicero, learning should begin with the assimilation of "well-known and hackneyed rules", which include knowledge of the purpose of the speech and the tasks of the speaker, general places, childbirth of eloquence, speech composition, means of its decoration, etc. Without denying the benefits of practicing impromptu speech, Cicero emphasized the importance of pre-prepared speeches: "... although it is useful to speak often without preparation, it is much more useful to give yourself time to think, but to speak carefully and diligently." He also considered useful the transcriptions of texts from the Greek language, he himself worked on them, and he took for translation not only well-known words and expressions, but also invented his own, more refined ones. Emphasizing the importance of practice for the formation of a speaker, Cicero believed that the more life situations an orator would pass, the more his skill would develop: “... the word must come out from the secluded atmosphere of home exercises and appear in the thick of the struggle, among the dust, among the cry, in the camp and on the field of legal battles .... ”.

Mark Fabius Quintilian (36-96 AD) summarized his experience as a teacher of rhetoric and legal counsel in an extensive essay on “Rhetorical Instruction”. In his rhetorical school, a broad general humanitarian education was combined with a deep study of the oratory of the times of ancient classicism. Quintillan's legacy contains a thorough analysis of theoretical and practical eloquence, thoughts about the upbringing of the speaker, recommendations for reading the works. The author outlines the development of oratorical qualities: “... the acquisition of a stock of the best expressions according to the rules prescribed in advance, the formation of a syllable, through lengthy and conscientious stylistic exercises, and even that which accidentally leaves the pen, must be written in character, and, finally, long verbal conversations with long written works - ease is given mainly by habit and practice . ”

According to Quintilian, a good speaker is distinguished both by the ability to speak clearly and clearly, and by the beauty and elegance of speech. Much more than the previous theorists, Quintilian develops the question of the logic of speech and ways to decorate speech, gives advice on improving the technique of speech, develops thoughts about the meaning of gestures, facial expressions, gestures in oratory.

In the Middle Ages in the countries of Western Europe, a rethinking of ancient oratory took place. Church homiletika supplanted all kinds of oratory. The era of the Renaissance revived rhetorical science and oratory in Germany, England, Italy, Spain and other European countries.

RHETORIC IN RUSSIA

Briefly about the history of rhetoric in Russia.

The influence of Cicero, Quintilian and other famous Roman speakers on the development of the theory of eloquence and methods of teaching rhetoric is very significant. The rhetorical culture of Rome was adopted by Byzantium, and after it the Ancient Russia. With the adoption of Christianity in Russia, the development of literacy began, and with it the essence of rhetoric as a science.

The “Words” by the famous Byzantine rhetorician John Chrysostom (347–407), who were part of the collections “Zlatostrui” and “Chrysostom” and served as role models, became widely known in Russia. In ancient Russian monuments the words rhetoric , rhetoric , vetiya , vetiyism , and cunning verb are often found . This suggests that already at that time the most serious attention was paid to the rules of speech construction. At that time, two kinds of public eloquence were spread in Russia: the word is solemn eloquence (for example, “A Word about Igor's Regiment”) and an instruction to which edifying speeches belonged (for example, “Instructions” by Vladimir Monomakh). By all the rules of rhetorical science, the “Word of the Law on Grace” was built by Metropolitan Hilarion, which is not inferior to the works of Byzantine speakers.

Before the adoption of Christianity in Russia there was no book teaching, since its necessity was rejected by paganism. Along with the adoption of the Christian faith, Russia borrowed the Byzantine education system. Just as in Byzantium, in Russia, a trivium (dialectic, grammar, and rhetoric) was known in the framework of the “bookish teaching”, and rhetoric was regarded as the highest science. Pupils learned the rules of speech behavior, which had to be followed in accordance with the norms of Christian ethics. The sayings about worldly wisdom were contained in the collection "The Bee", almost half of them refer to the rules of practical rhetoric.

In the 17th century, the first Moscow schools of the “higher” type appeared at the monasteries. The best students of such schools were encouraged: they were given the right to give a speech in front of the patriarch. Secular schools were also opened in which instruction was limited to the study of classical languages ​​(Greek and Latin), rhetoric, grammar and some other sciences.

In 1620, the first rhetoric textbook appeared in Russia, based on the translation of the work of the German humanist Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560). A translator, presumably the Vologda Metropolitan Macarius, provides a rationale for rhetoric: learning to “virtue” is one of the ways to achieve a proper and useful life. With the development of education, many rhetoric textbooks appeared in Latin or Church Slavonic.

A great contribution to the development of Russian eloquence was made by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711–1765). He undertook the reform of the Russian language, laid the foundation of the modern Russian language. In 1744, Lomonosov published the first textbook of rhetoric in Russian, "A Quick Guide to Rhetoric, written for the benefit of lovers of sweet words." The publication met with a rebuff of academicians who offered to make a translation into Latin. The author not only did not do this, but also prepared in 1748 a new work - “A Quick Guide to Eloquence.” Mv Lomonosov defined eloquence and orator: “ Rhetoric is the science of any proposed matter to speak and write redly, that is, to use such an eloquence and decent words as such to allow the audience and readers to verify its fairness. He who is skilled in this science is called the orator. "

Lomonosov, considering the problem of preparing the speaker, says that eloquence requires spiritual (sharp mind and memory) and bodily (good physical qualities), as well as knowledge of the theory, in particular, the elements and structure of public speech, knowledge of "mores", exercises in imitation of the authors. The Lomonosov textbook was the first Russian textbook that contained samples from works of ancient, European and domestic rhetoricians.

According to the project of Lomonosov in 1755 Moscow University was established, at the faculty of philosophy of which read a course of eloquence.

In Russia at the end of the XVIII - XIX centuries. Numerous textbooks on rhetoric are created. I.S. Riga , the author of the textbook "The Experience of Rhetoric" (1809), defined the tasks of general rhetoric in using the power of a word, which consists in expressiveness and figurativeness of speech, to influence the minds and souls of listeners. N.F. Koshansky , whose “Rhetoric” stood 11 editions, believed that learning rhetoric solves not only practical, but also deep developmental tasks: through learning the invention of speech, all the faculties of the mind develop, and the elegant expression of thoughts fosters love for the noble and the beautiful. N.F. Koshansky singled out three means of teaching rhetoric: reading, thinking and exercises. No less popular in the 19th century was “Brief rhetoric, or the Rules relating to all kinds of prose writings,” written by A.F. Merzlyakov . The book contains instructions on writing letters, speeches, talking, reasoning, writing true or fictional stories, and educational books. In 1844, M.M. Speransky "Rules of Higher Eloquence." The author believed that “the bases of eloquence are the essence of passion”, and considered the meaning of the compositional elements of speech for the excitation of passions (for example, the introduction is “preparing the soul for the concepts that the speaker wants to instill in her, or for the passions he wants to excite in her” .

Of great importance for the development of rhetoric in Russia was the judicial reform of 1864. As a result of the reform, the judicial process became open, public, competitive, the bar was established, and, as a result, a considerable number of talented judicial speakers appeared. Among them are the prosecutor and the judge A.F. Horses, lawyers F.N. Plevako, P.A. Alexandrov, S.A. Andreevsky, N.P. Karabchevsky, A.I. Urusov and many others. Their speeches were distinguished by the depth of content, the refinement of the form and the refinement of the syllable. Many of them not only engaged in the practice of judicial eloquence, but also contributed to the development of the theory of rhetoric.

In the second half of the nineteenth century, many public and political figures criticized official eloquence and rhetoric. After the October 1917 coup, rhetoric was declared an old-fashioned and useless science — it is practically not taught in educational institutions. Interest in rhetoric in our country is revived only in the 90s of the XXth century, which is associated with a change in the socio-political and economic conditions of society, a new attitude towards man as an individual, unique personality and the development of sciences that study speech from different perspectives.