Lecture
Definitions of errors and illusions.
Different approaches to understanding the nature of the error. Error as a result of natural limitations analyzer, cognitive and executive systems. The motivational nature of error (Z. Freud, K. Levin). Error as a result of the operation of automated "schemes", "strategies" and "heuristics" (N. A. Bernstein, D. Norman, D. Kahneman). Error as a manifestation of the “cognitive unconscious” (the intuitive nature of error) and the result of testing hypotheses (VM Allahverdov).
General psychological bases for the classification of errors and illusions. Illusions of perception. Errors of attention and inattention. Forgetting and memory errors. Mistakes thinking and decision making. Metacognitive illusions.
Literature
Primary:
Additional:
Illusion (lat. Illusio - delusion, deception) - a distorted perception of a real-life object or phenomenon that allows for ambiguous interpretation. Illusions can occur in mentally healthy people (physical, physiological illusions, metamorphopsia).
Errare humanum est. (Humans tend to make mistakes.)
The place of the theory of errors among other ideas:
+ ------------ +
| theory |
| activities |
+ ------ + ----- +
+ -------- + -------- +
| |
+ ------ + ------- + + ------- + ------- + + ------------ +
| theory | | adoption theory | | theory |
| rules | | solutions | | learning |
+ ------ + --- + --- + + ------- + ------- + + ----- + ------ +
| | + -> - + |
| + ------> ------ + | + - <- +
+ ------ + ----- + | | |
| theory | | | |
| crimes | | | |
| | | | |
| + ---------- + | =================
|| theory || | |
|| guilt | + ---- <--- + theory of errors |
| + ---------- + | | |
| + ---------- + | =================
|| theory ||
|| punishments ||
| + ---------- + |
+ ------------ +
Different types of activities are substantially different in relation to
the place of errors in them. Perhaps the following:
1) errors are not allowed; activities are carried out before the first
errors;
2) errors are permissible, but they should be few;
3) errors are permissible in large quantities, but the effect of
correct decisions should outweigh losses from erroneous;
4) the activity is carried out by trial until the first
correct decision.
Phases of activity in the aspect of making mistakes:
normal activities;
erroneous activity;
error detection;
error correction;
correction of the consequences of an error;
error analysis and improved work organization to reduce
the frequency and severity of errors in the future.
The error is characterized by how easy it is to make, detected
live, fix, as well as how heavy its consequences.
Error classification:
1) for reasons of appearance:
intuition mistakes;
logical errors;
arithmetic errors;
perception errors (= illusions, hallucinations);
recognition errors;
recall errors;
attention errors (ignoring factor, signal);
2) in the form:
errors in magnitude;
errors in determining the accuracy of the value;
errors in the sequence;
errors in determining the presence or absence of;
3) by place in the aggregate of representations:
reconstruction errors (recognition of the past);
forecasting errors, design;
generalization errors;
4) according to a mental operation:
errors of interpretation of the original data;
problem formulation errors;
errors in composing a set of solutions;
errors in choosing a solution;
errors in the formulation of results;
5) according to the degree of certainty:
alleged;
explicit;
6) by place in the aggregate of representations:
absolute;
relative (an error regarding the concept of A may not be
error relative to competing concept B);
7) by degree of investigation:
errors whose possible consequences are known to the one who
makes them;
errors whose possible consequences are not known to the one who
makes them;
8) by consequences:
critical (making the result useless as a whole),
non-critical;
accumulating, compensating;
local, propagated (for example, when using
a piece of program code containing an error in
as a prototype), provoking other errors,
worsening the quality of subsequent decisions.
9) on possible response:
correctable;
compensated;
uncorrectable and non-compensable. You can consider the main types of situations in which arise
mistakes.
1. Distraction. The man was going to do some
a small action, but he was distracted, and the action remained
unfulfilled, and the man forgot about it.
2. Failure to transfer information. Some have handed over to man
information, but they did not reach him.
3. Perception error. Some information was passed to the person, but
he did not pay attention to them, or did not understand them, or understood
wrong.
4. Recognition error. Due to the similarity of perceived
entities
5. Error memories.
5.1. Time binding error. The man remembers the real
but the existing situation, but not at that moment, which
It is of interest to him, but on the preceding or
subsequent.
5.2. Error binding to the site. The man correctly remembers
detail, but mistakenly recalls the essence to which this
Detail applies.
6. Neglecting the relationship of decisions. Regarding issue A, it was accepted
then solution X, which determined solution Y in relation to problem B,
associated with A. After a while, solution X was replaced
on Z, but on the need for an appropriate review of the decision Y
forgot.
7. Action by analogy. Sometimes it is undertaken in circumstances
wah, in which there is no complete analogy, but only partial
tichnaya.
From errors one should distinguish consciously left and subsequently
vii forgotten or hidden deficiencies, as well as secret sabotage,
possibly disguised as errors.
About the difference between mistakes and stupidities. An error occurs
when a person does something wrong in spite of his attitudes,
perceptions and intellectual skills, and stupidity - when
thanks to them.
Some errors are apparent. Misconception
arises due to ignorance of some circumstances and narrow
consideration of the situation. As a result of fixing apparent errors
errors are real.
For example, in the "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" (ed. "Owls.
Encyclopedia ", 1987) the word Bellingshausen turned out to be
chatano that Bellingshausen and Lazarev went to Antarctica on
BOATS. Obviously, the sloops were originally mentioned in the text,
and not boats, but the proof-reader did not begin to delve into the description, but only
just took advantage of what he remembered in the first place:
took the more common word "boat". By the way, in the preceding
vlyuyuschih and subsequent editions of the dictionary were just "sloops".
The cause of the error may be another error. For example, man
can search for some word in the list, based on the alphabetical
a row of this list, and consider that it is not there, although this word
present, but violates alphabetical order. Had a seeker
suggested the possibility of someone's mistake (consisting in violation
alphabetical order), he would not make his own.
A variety of pseudo-mistakes - conscious simplifications: discretionary
tization, abstraction, rounding, smoothing.
Whenever it appears that you are dealing with an error,
Do not assume that you are mistaken yourself: too limited to consider
I remembered the situation, remembered incorrectly, misunderstood the visible,
Vilna interpreted the intention of another person, etc.
Possible content of errors:
the assumption of immutability at the time that took place
changes;
assumption of change at the time that took place
immutability;
overestimate by the investigating subject of his knowledge
nosti;
wrong definition ...
source of benefit / harm;
the amount of benefit / harm;
the likelihood of benefit / harm;
etc.
Possible results of errors:
problem creation;
failure to use a problem solver;
adoption of a non-optimal solution to the problem;
making the best decision for an incorrectly formulated
problem (and therefore not optimal with regard to the validity
problem).
Error is a relative phenomenon: it is determined relatively non-
which information. Correct actions based on erroneous
perceptions are not an error, although to the desired result
that may not lead. The error in this case is made in another
place: when making ideas.
There may be pseudo errors:
man mistakenly thinks he was wrong;
man is mistaken about some aggregate
views but turns out to be right relative to the other
the aggregate of representations for which the first
the aggregate is erroneous.
Error levels may vary - for example, the following
in the following way:
1st: there are no obstacles to further work, there is no inevitable
reducing the quality of the result, but the probability increases
this reduction or increase costs;
2nd: there are no obstacles to further work, but in case of non-acceptance
additional measures reduces the quality of the result;
3rd: no
obstacles to further work, but the quality of the result
inevitably decreases;
4th: the work can not be completed successfully, but you can do it
again;
5th: Work cannot be completed successfully and cannot be done
again.
Mark D. A., McGowan K. ("Methodology of structural analysis and
design, p. 16):
The process of creating a system is divided into the following phases:
"analysis is the definition of what the system will do;
design - the definition of subsystems and their interaction;
implementation - development of subsystems separately;
integration - the connection of subsystems into a single whole;
testing - checking the operation of the system;
installation - the introduction of the system into action;
operation is the use of the system. "
"Error correction at the design stage is 2 times,
at the testing stage - 10 times, and at the operation stage -
100 times more expensive than at the analysis stage. "
Activity Components:
+ ------------------------------------------------- - +
| ============ =========== ====================== |
|| instruction | -> | subject | -> | tool | -> | object ||
| ============ =========== ====================== |
| |
| Wednesday |
+ ------------------------------------------------- - +
Causes of errors:
tool imperfection;
imperfection of instructions to the subject;
imperfection of the subject;
complexity, inconvenience of the object;
unfavorable environment: the presence of distracting factors.
The cause of errors in actions by analogy may be ...
random similarity;
insufficient similarity.
Possible imperfections instructions:
lack of guidance;
erroneous instructions;
unclear directions;
ambiguously understood directions;
mutually conflicting directions.
Possible imperfections of the subject:
lack of perception (weak receptors);
poor intelligence;
attention defects:
inability to keep attention on one subject for a long time;
the tendency to focus on a particular subject;
distractibility;
mental imbalance: the tendency to panic,
go into euphoria;
inadequate or simplistic general ideas about the world.
It is necessary to distinguish:
unsuitable basic qualities of an object, subject, instrument
etc.;
unsuitable current states of the object, subject, instrument
etc.
Possible disadvantages of the subject:
intellectual underdevelopment;
inadequate ideas about yourself, instrument, object,
environment - due to lack of education, lack of
personal experience;
low priority activities;
current unpreparedness: insufficient tone, extraneous
thoughts from which it is difficult to distract.
With all the hard and difficult work you need to look for the opportunity
devices breaks in order to relax, analyze
used technologies and to improve them or to find
nosti avoidance activities.
Ways to prevent undesirable effects:
the rule;
voice reminder;
prohibitory signal (eg: red traffic light);
overcoming obstacle (eg: barrier);
insurmountable obstacle.
Possible human reactions to the detection of his own error:
concealment;
notification of those who may suffer from an error;
secret error correction;
destruction of evidence of their involvement in the consequences
errors;
fabricating evidence of the guilt of others. Types of errors:
false recognition;
non-recognition;
incomplete recall;
neglect of unlikely opportunity;
neglect to clarify initial conditions;
neglect to check the result in conditions when
acceptable opportunity to do it;
slow wits in the presence of sufficient data for the required
conclusions;
inconsistency:
skip operation;
permutation operations;
the inclusion of an extra operation;
repetition of the operation;
not paying attention to changing circumstances;
incorrect definition of a set of significant factors;
incorrect determination of the values of significant factors;
incorrect formulation of the problem;
wrong solution to the problem.
Factors contributing to the increase in errors:
lack of time;
lack of information, excess information;
fatigue;
distracting effects;
idle mood;
extraneous thoughts;
fear of mistakes.
Three periods can be distinguished in a session:
1) the period of operating;
2) the period of normal operation;
3) the period of appearance and increase of fatigue.
Errors are more likely in the 1st and 3rd periods.
Possible reasons for acting by sampling in conditions where
This method is not suitable:
lack of instructions;
unwillingness to study instruction;
misunderstanding of instructions;
incomplete, erroneous, ambiguous instructions;
overestimation of their experience and intuition.
Possible characteristics of the action:
type of;
orientation (object of application);
the moment or condition of commencement, fulfillment, termination;
strength, duration.
Possible mistakes in actions:
wrong sequence of actions;
premature or late action;
action on the wrong object;
incorrect duration or wrong strength of action;
wrong type of action;
unnecessary action.
When developing a man-machine system, all that is required in it
actions must be analyzed in terms of possible errors
and protection from them. Device "machine" parts and instructions for
The “human” parts of such a system should be oriented
to minimize the possibility of committing wrong actions. it
- a necessary condition for the prevention of explosions in atomic electric
stations, plane crashes, etc.
Mistakes, irresponsibility, distraction
ness
Laziness - the lack of desire for activity in the presence of others
internal and external conditions of its commission and with the consciousness
usefulness of the activity.
Causes of laziness:
low tone (due to poor health, poor nutrition);
depressed mood;
lack of interest;
weakness (i.e., inability to violence against oneself).
Irresponsibility - no fear of punishment or unconscious
the possibility of punishment.
Possible reasons for irresponsibility:
lack of experience of punishment;
emotional poverty;
masochism;
suicidality (suicidal tendencies);
belief in luck, hope for a miracle;
disregard of rules and responsibilities, indifference to
the interests of other people and society as a whole;
depression of anxiety compared to which
the punishment is not significant;
weakness of "sense of reality", accustoming to "virtual
reality ";
conflict, aggressiveness.
Conflict - the absence of a moral barrier before the
em in conflict. Aggressiveness - the need for experiencing confi
Liktov. The reason for neglecting the rules and responsibilities may
be the desire to get reasons for conflict.
Distraction - 1) a tendency to focus on the decision-
NII of individual problems leading to the non-perception of changes in the environment,
requiring reaction; 2) inability to prolonged concentration
focus on solving individual problems.
Carelessness - a tendency to underestimate the danger, too high
evaluate their ability to counter harmful factors.
Excuses for errors:
"I wanted the best."
"I did the same as always."
"I did the same thing everyone does."
"I did everything according to the instructions."
"The instruction is bad."
“I didn’t think it would happen that way”;
"I am not a good man for this job."
"The whole system is bad."
Any mistake can be interpreted as malice. Repeating
This error is similar to malicious intent to an even greater extent than
single, but in fact it can be caused by some constant
factors, including the internal - for example, some particular
mind or irregular ideological installation.
If a person is inclined to reinsure, then he will surely
more often to err on the side of over-estimating the danger, and if he
careless, then - in the direction of its understatement. If he is decisive (or
irresponsible) in judgments, he will give out a lot of "bold
hypotheses "which almost always do not correspond to reality
and if he does not believe in himself or is afraid of being ridiculous, he will
discarding such hypotheses even before they mature and in
as a result, sometimes missing something significant.
Among other things, a person is prone to err in favor of those judgments.
and options for action that are more desirable to him. If he wants one
but circumstances require him to be different; rather, he is mistaken
fights so that the option he wants (perhaps not quite
consciously) will look more acceptable to him. Possible attitudes towards team errors:
(не)желание заниматься исправлением чужих ошибок;
(не)настроенность на изучение чужих ошибок.
Следствие наказания за ошибки -- нежелание принимать рискован-
ные решения, стремление переложить "ошибкоопасную" работу на
других.
В некоторых областях деятельности ошибки неизбежны, в некоторых
недопустимы, но возможны.
Не ошибается тот, кто ничего не делает. Наибольшее число ошибок
у людей, выполняющих наиболее сложную работу и/или подходящих к
работе наиболее творчески.
Прежде, чем браться за работу, в которой ошибки неизбежны и
ведут к тяжелым последствиям, следует оговорить характер ответст-
венннсти за эти ошибки.
Вина за ошибку никогда не является индивидуальной: её причиной
отчасти являются условия, в которых действовал совершивший её
человек, а на эти условия, как правило, влияли или имели возмож-
ность повлиять многие люди. Справедливое наказание за ошибку
может иметь целью только поддержание боязни ошибиться, но никак
не месть и не возмещение ущерба. Боязнь ошибиться должна поддер-
живаться на таком уровне, чтобы не вызывать чрезмерного волнения
(которое само по себе нередко является причиной ошибок) и чтобы
находились желающие браться за работу, в которой возможны ошибки. Поскольку в сложных технических системах многочисленные ошибки
неизбежны, используются развитые технологии работы с ошибками.
Ошибки регистрируются, каждой присваивается степень тяжести и
степень срочности исправления.
Степени тяжести ошибок в технической системе:
1-я: невозможность использования системы (недоступность
основных функций);
2-я: ограничение возможностей использования системы
(недоступность вспомогательных функций);
3-я: неудобство в работе;
4-я: дефекты внешнего вида.
Степени тяжести ошибок в документации на техническую систему:
1-я: опасность вызова повреждения 1 степени;
2-я: опасность вызова повреждения 2 степени;
3-я: неудобство в работе;
4-я: опечатки.
Возможные ошибки в рассуждениях при выявлении ошибок:
1. Исходят из того, что обстоятельство X существует, между тем
наличие этого обстоятельства не было проверено.
2. Исходят из того, что существует обстоятельство X, между тем
надо различать обстоятельство X1 и обстоятельство X2.
3. Исходят из того, что существует обстоятельство X, между тем
за него принимают похожее обстоятельство Y.
4. Исходят из того, что обстоятельство X существует, потому что
оно было проверено, между тем после проверки этого обстоя-
тельства было проделано изменение, в результате чего это
обстоятельство ненамеренно устранили.
5. При выборе из нескольких предположений тяготеют к тем,
согласно которым ошибку сделал кто-то другой.
6. При выборе из нескольких предположений тяготеют к тем,
согласно которым ошибку сделали сами, а не кто-то другой.
7. При выборе из нескольких предположений тяготеют к тем,
которые подкрепляют любимые общие суждения оситуации.
Возможные действия в связи с обнаружением ошибки:
1. Прекратить эксплуатацию системы до исправления ошибки.
2. Исправить ошибку без прекращения эксплуатации системы.
3. Отложить исправление ошибки до очередного останова системы
на "техническое обслуживание".
4. Исправить ошибку в проекте и не повторять её во вновь
изготавливаемых экземплярах системы (выпускаемых версиях
программной системы).
Варианты исправления ошибки:
1. Замена неправильного элемента на правильный.
2. Добавление "заплаты" -- элемента, компенсирующего последствия
mistakes.
3. Исключение неправильного функционирующего элемента, упрощение
system.
После исправления ошибки требуется тестирование. В зависимости
от характера ошибки может потребоваться тестирование не только
той части в которой была обнаружена ошибка, но также подсистемы,
в которую эта часть входит, иди даже системы в целом.
Этапы жизненного цикла ошибки:
"обнаружена";
"признана" (отнесена к числу заслуживающих исправления);
"назначена" (поручена кому-то, чтобы он её исправил);
"исправлена" (исправленный вариант предъявлен для тестиро-
вания);
"проверена";
"устранена". Можно относиться к каждой обнаруженной ошибке как к ценному
опыту, позволяющему исправить недостатки в подготовке специалис-
тов, в организации работы, в используемых технологиях. А можно
просто исправлять ошибку, наказывать виновного и не делать ника-
ких изменений в остальном. Первый подход со временем приводит к
уменьшению числа и тяжести ошибок, второй не приводит.
Меры, обеспечивающие возможность расследования ошибок:
ведение журналов регистрации событий и действий;
сохранение старых копий данных и документов;
сохранение выведенных из употребления вещей.
Результатом работы над ошибками может быть ...
изменение ...
инструкций;
организации деятельности;
состава исполнителей;
устройства объекта воздействия;
переподготовка исполнителей.
Надо не просто устранять ту или иную ошибку, но также проделы-
вать следующее:
1) выяснять и по возможности исправлять причины этой ошибки, если
они могут приводить к сходным ошибкам;
2) анализировать эффективность средств обнаружения ошибок и по
возможности совершенствовать эти средства;
3) искать сходные ошибки в других местах;
4) пополнять список правил поиса ошибок ("если..., то...").
Бывает, действие ошибки позволяет обнаружить какие-то другие
ошибки, которые проявились единственно благодаря той ошибке,
из-за которой начата работа. В таком случае до исправления этих
других ошибок нельзя исправлять "главную", иначе будет трудно
проверить успешность их исправления.
Возможные санкции по отношению к виновному:
публичный выговор;
переэкзаменовка;
переподготовка в нерабочее время;
deduction from wages;
imposing unpleasant duties;
demotion;
demotion;
transfer to another job;
firing
Punishment for mistakes that are inevitable with some probability
even if all preventive measures are taken, there should be no
heavy.
The penalty for mistakes should be significant enough to
there was a steady desire to avoid them, but not so significant
fear of decision-making, fear of manifestation
initiative.
Sometimes the fuss about minor mistakes causes
more damage than the mistakes themselves, but it does not contribute
prevention.
Sometimes the mistakes of a person are used as a reason
to remove accumulated aggressiveness on him, to revenge him,
for self-affirmation through the humiliation of others. Some of the reasons for the excipients are: disregard of instructions; absence or incompleteness of instructions; instruction error; error in the interpretation of instructions; incomprehensibility of instructions. Frequently, instructions are written carelessly: their authors assume that the required actions are obvious or better explained by the display method. In addition, if the products used are quickly becoming obsolete and replaced with new ones, then the instructions for them become unnecessary even before they are brought to good condition. Sometimes, in principle, it is possible or even necessary to write instructions to the system even before this system is created: first, develop the optimal way of action and only then - the system that allows this way of action to be implemented. Instructions are built hierarchically. The instructions of the most detailed level do not require any prior knowledge of the system to which they belong. All permissible actions, except for obvious ones, should be described as far as possible by instructions. Any product should be created so that the instruction to it was shorter or not required at all. In the event of changes in the product, the instruction to it should also be changed. The quality of the instructions for a product that is difficult to use is just as important as the quality of the product itself. Moreover, the advantages of the instruction compensate for the shortcomings of the product. Guidance texts of the following types are highlighted: 1.1. Those that are not performed step by step, and should be read in their entirety; they require more or less extensive information in the head. 1.2. Those that can be read and executed step by step; they do not require the retention of more or less extensive information in the head. 2.1. Giving recommendations (i.e., describing non-mandatory actions); they require thought when they are done. 2.2. Instructions (i.e., describing mandatory actions); they do not require reflection when they are executed. Type Instructions 1.1. and 2.1. acceptable for situations in which actions are not reduced to stable sequences of steps and improvisations are required based on certain principles. Operational conditions may or may not allow the time spent on reading instructions. In the second case, knowledge of the instruction and the skill of executing it is required, and since both are not always of the required quality, some reminders of the required actions are useful (for example, in the form of short inscriptions on the product). Instructions must be updated in accordance with changes in the system they describe, as well as in connection with the elimination of errors and gaps found in them. To facilitate orientation in documents, color coding of covers and sections can be used. All documentation should be drawn up in a uniform manner, whatever its field of activity. Uniform should be, among other things, paper formats, fonts, design of covers. The standard for documentation should be flexible enough to ensure ease of following in any area of activity. Violation of this standard should be considered a threat to society.
The following means against errors are distinguished:
1) technical, organizational;
2) error prevention;
enabling verification, facilitating detection
mistakes;
protection from the negative effects of mistakes: relief
corrections or compensation of errors.
Technical means of protection against errors:
simplifying things that are dangerous
actions;
typing things (eliminating useless differences);
increasing the differences between those things (components of things),
which can be confused and cause damage;
use of automatic formal verification tools
the permissibility of action;
use of automatic formal verification tools
the results of the actions performed;
ensuring the design features of things and use
special devices that exclude the possibility of erroneous
action.
Diversity should be minimized and non-eliminating
There are significant differences. If two components of some products
assume the same actions in relation to them, then they
should look the same whenever possible, the same name,
equally described. The number of terms used, signs,
visual types should be minimal. For example, if for
key input key accepted the word "Enter", it should
be used in ALL suitable cases (and it is "Enter",
and not "ENTER"), and any "Submit" is inadmissible instead.
or "OK". And if the word "Cancel" is accepted to cancel the action, it
should also be used in ALL suitable cases and not allowed
Timo instead, some "Discard" or "Drop." Accentuate
making significant differences is necessary to eliminate errors,
occurring because of the similarities. And if you do not adhere to this
approach, then more often will face the train, etc.
Organizational means of error protection:
selection of personnel on the basis of the greatest fitness to work;
general training;
learning to work in particularly difficult conditions;
learning to avoid mistakes, as well as their detection,
correction, elimination of their consequences;
ensuring an optimal labor regime;
a reminder of the most frequent and most undesirable
proper errors;
Prevent situations that have errors:
leading to mental overload;
requiring infrequently used perceptions and skills;
implementation checks.
In a team in which several people make similar
difficult work, useful for people to share their experiences
mistakes: told them what mistakes they made and why, and also
how they were discovered and how they were fixed.
* * *
One can imagine the following plausible situation (which
paradise is not typical just because its outcome is so obvious that
few people want to be in it). Suppose an engineer makes up
treasured note in which he says that he discovered in the enterprise
quite significant issue in terms of security. Mene
Jerr replies: "Yes, yes, you are absolutely right! And I am very glad of you
linen! But we have no money for the extra work that you
offer. I will try to compete for the allocation of additional
funds, but it will take time, and in addition, success is not guaranteed
van. "Other answer options:
1. "We have other significant flaws elsewhere
in terms of security. "
2. "If we ask for additional money from the customer and
to scare him with possible disasters, our direction of work,
may be covered in general. And it will hit not only on us
personally, but also on national security, etc. "
3. "For sure the risk is within acceptable limits. You know,
which completely eliminate the risk we will not succeed. But you go on
those analyze. "
4. "You can not drive a wave. If we start talking about this issue,
then people will be nervous, distracted by discussions, do
mistakes, and as a result will get worse. "
It is possible to object to this, but not very convincingly. It happens extremely
it is difficult to initiate a struggle even with a very big threat if
only the struggle itself is not a source of income.
* * *
Technical and organizational systems should be designed
so that the mistakes of designers, implementers, users
of these systems (as well as systems that interact or are adjacent to
connected with these systems) are easily detected and corrected.
or at least did not lead to serious consequences. For this you can
follow the following principles:
1. All significant actions in the system or in relation to the system
must be briefly, conveniently and clearly documented.
2. All essential processes in the system should automatically
logged.
3. The results of any work in which errors are possible with heavy
consequences, someone has to check.
4. The verifier should not be in any dependence on
verifiable.
5. The system should, if possible, include detection tools.
errors, bug fixes, testing the results of
of
6. There should be a technology of accounting and correction of errors, detecting
both in the process of developing the system and in the process of
exploitation and development.
7. The system should provide for the cancellation of actions performed.
vii (restoration of previous states).
8. It should be provided that some parts of the system, and some
and the system as a whole will be inoperable from time to time
due to errors and actions to eliminate them.
The following is recommended:
1. To consider making a mistake not an offense, but an accident,
due mainly to omissions in the organization of work.
2. Encourage the correction of their own and others' mistakes.
3. Encourage a problem-finding initiative.
improvement of technology projects. Characteristics of the verification procedure:
expenses;
probability of detecting / not detecting an error;
probability of erroneous detection / non-detection of an error.
The cost of verification should be less than the average amount.
losses from errors that are detected by this test, and losses
from errors when checking.
Erroneous verification may cause damage.
checked object.
The result of the test may be erroneous due to the fact that
verification procedure ...
superficial;
contains an error;
was carried out incorrectly;
gave an incorrectly interpreted result.
Types of verification procedures:
getting the same again in the same way;
obtaining the same in a different way;
performing actions in reverse order: from end to beginning;
checking the internal consistency of the result of actions;
checking the compliance of the result of actions with other data.
Self-testing is often less effective than checking performed
rented by another person.
Possible verification objectives:
correct the error;
punish the one who made the mistake;
change technology activities to reduce
probability and severity of errors.
Lack of punishment for non-critical easily correctable errors
contributes to the fact that the performer of the work is not very much
he wants to avoid them and reluctantly checks himself: he hopes that
will be corrected by the reviewer.
Test - a type of test. When tested is checked
product by using it and / or by affecting it
destructive factors that will affect it in
the process of using it.
The test is destructive and non-destructive. Destructive
test is applied to a group of similar products: some
products from the group are tested, and the results are done
conclusion about the quality of the remaining products of the group. By responsible work here is meant such work, in
which errors or incomplete execution lead to heavy
the consequences.
Rules for the performance of responsible work:
step by step performance of work;
the implementation of operations together or three in cases where
one performer is enough;
documenting completed steps;
verification of the results of the steps.
The technology used for the job must be
opportunities such that errors detected at any step
corrected without high costs.
The scope of responsibilities should be clearly defined.
and feasible for people with not very great abilities,
not in their best condition.
Every person can be expected to perform properly.
only if this person is of sufficient
interest is interested (financially, etc.) in the performance of these obligations
employment; that he has the necessary abilities for this,
readily available sources of information, technical means,
convenience, time, and also quite vigorous, healthy and not burdened
extraneous concerns. Otherwise he will be carelessly
to meet their responsibilities, to ignore them, to err, and
the blame for this will not be on him, but on those who have not provided him
necessary conditions. True, they, in turn, may also
forced to act in conditions of incomplete security.
In general, catastrophes occur less frequently than they could
partly thanks to the dedication of some people and the happy
accident, not because sufficient measures have been taken to
prevent them. 
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Psychology of errors and illusions
Terms: Psychology of errors and illusions