Types of information and functional-semantic types of speech (methods of presentation)

Identification of such text units as utterance and interphrase unity gives an idea of ​​the formal grammatical (syntactic) structure of the text. However, the text as a unit, first of all, is informative and communicative, and it also needs the characteristics of its structure in a different way - functional, semantic. Function and meaning, not syntactic structures, create character traits of the text. Therefore, there is a need to pay attention to the ways of presentation of the material in the text, and necessarily relative to the nature of the text information. For the designation of speech methods of information transfer there are terms - functional-semantic types of speech, types of presentation, methods of presentation. The term “functional-semantic types of speech” (hereinafter referred to as the FSTR) seems to be the most accurate in terms of the volume of the transmitted value.

FSTR is determined by the nature of the transmitted content information. The informative information, as it is known, is factual, corresponding to the empirical level of knowledge; conceptual and hypothetical, corresponding to the theoretical level of knowledge; methodical, containing a description of the methods and techniques for assimilating information; aesthetic, associated with the categories of evaluative, emotional, moral and ethical plan; instructive, containing a focus on certain actions. These types of information are contained separately or collectively in different types of text. For example, factual, theoretical, and hypothetical information is characterized primarily by scientific texts; factual and aesthetic are artistic texts; methodical - educational texts; journalistic and newspaper texts (syncretic in nature) are designed for two types of human activity - cognitive and value-orientation, and therefore combine different types of information - factual, estimated-emotional.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are reflected in the overall specificity of texts. They can be, first of all, ascertaining (or representing) the type and type of argumentation. Each of these types in the text is implemented in different forms of speech or methods of presentation (or FSTR). The texts of the ascertaining type have the FSTR description, narration (characteristic description, message narration). The texts of the reasoning type are FSTR reasoning (definition-explanation, inference-reasoning). This is the most traditional classification of the FSTR, in which there are mainly three types - description, narration, reasoning [1].

Recording type texts reveal the signs, properties, qualities of objects, the course of the experiment, signs in phase transitions (description); reflect the dynamics of events, processes (narration). The texts of the reasoning type represent information in the form of a definition or explanation, proof, the actual reasoning and inference (reasoning). Such a text reflects the movement of thought with an indication of cause-effect relationships and conditional-time relations, using different logical operations. Moreover, the main methods of presentation (meaningfully different) can be used in different texts. For example, the technical description of any unit in the scientific and technical text and description of the landscape, portrait of the character, the situation - in the artistic text; narration about the course of events, actions in a literary text and narration about scientific searches, history of discoveries in a scientific text; the reasoning in the scientific text and the reasoning about the psychological state of the character in the artistic text, etc.

Thus, the functional-semantic type of speech is a kind of communication model. And when defining the mechanisms for the formation of a text, first of all, the very model of communication is chosen, i.e. constructive features of a speech act are taken into account, the totality of which forms the model.

The constructive features include:

1) communicative targeting;

2) the subject (content) of communication;

3) signs of the situation in which communication takes place;

4) social characteristics of the participants of communication.

The combination of these signs and creates a system of speech situations, and the type of speech situation determines the specific model of communication (message). Within each type of speech situation, fairly standard forms of their implementation in the text are formed. Stereotyped speech behavior is born, which is reflected in the norms (rigid or less rigid, free) speech organization of the text. The text accordingly acquires the form that helps him to perform this communicative task. Moreover, the more standard the text, the brighter its features are revealed, the more predictable is its form. Consequently, the purpose, intention (author's intention) determine the type of presentation in the text, carrying certain information, and the type of text - functional-semantic type of speech, t . e. speech form.

Thus, the text implements a certain communicative intention (intention, task):

1) inform, state (description);

2) tell, portray (narration);

3) compare, summarize, summarize (definition, explanation);

4) substantiate, prove, disprove, expose (argumentation, reasoning);

5) to induce, request, order (instruct).

Taking into account the text targeting data, it is possible to draw (generally and conditionally!) Conclusions about the prevailing way of presenting content in the text as a whole or in its fragment, type of text, genre; even a type of science (for example, in mathematics, reasoning, in botany, description, in history, narration). It is, of course, only the prevailing way of presentation, and this does not exclude a combination of different methods in any text. It is necessary to keep in mind the differences in the manifestations of these methods in the texts of monological and dialogical.

So, functional-semantic types of speech in the framework of the text correspond to the categories of mental and communicative. Interesting in this sense is the system E. Wehrlih [2].

In a somewhat abbreviated form, it looks like this:

So, the description is an enumeration of the signs, properties of the object; narration - a story about events in a time sequence; reasoning - the investigation of the object or phenomenon, the disclosure of their internal features, the proof of certain provisions; instructing - recommendations for actions. Approximately, ancient rhetoric was taught: narration deals with action, description - with subject, reasoning - with relation of objects and actions.

Before characterizing the structure of functional-semantic types of speech, I would like to draw attention to the fact that the main features that help distinguish these types are found in a separate utterance, i.e. the dominant feature of the FSTR is the nature of the rhematic components of the utterance [3].

It is the rem that creates, forms the type, determines its form, therefore even a separately taken sentence-expression can manifest type. Take two statements with a similar structure [4]:

The train is coming and the rain is coming. In the first case, the subject, being a product of human activity, is actively acting (the subject is an artifact), the phrase indicates a narrative context. In the second case, we have before us a natural substance (subject of nature fact), this context is of a descriptive type. The whole thing is in the nature of the verbal predicate. The verb goes denotes different types of movement. In the first case - an active action, in the second - a movement that is closed in the subject itself, which is why the verb here can be trimmed without detriment to the meaning (cf .: It rains - Rain ). Such transformations in the proposal. The train is almost impossible (the train can stand ; whereas the rain cannot stand , it always goes ). Possible distributors are also indicative here: The train goes quickly, slowly, with stops (adverbial components characterizing the active action); Rain gives another compatibility: Rain is rare, strong, light, frequent, like a bucket (distributors point out the intensity of the symptom).

With the type of speech is connected and word order. For example, the phrases The train stopped at the station and H and the station stopped the train indicates that they belong to different contexts: in the first case, the action is active (walked, walked and stopped), in the second, this fact is presented as being observed from the side, as a detail of a painted picture. Wed: Appeared railway. At the station, the train stopped. Such a rearrangement led to a theme-rhematic displacement, the topic and the remas were reversed, and the sentences-statements turned out to belong to the narrative contexts (1st sentence) and descriptive (2nd sentence).

Functional-semantic types of speech, although they have become the subject of research attention [5], currently need further study. In particular, speech forms are not sufficiently differentiated for different types of text; links between purely syntactic features of the given object and textual ones are not specified; different types of rheumatic and logical dominants are not analyzed; the ratio in the structure of types of content-logical and formal-grammatical elements, etc. is not established. On all these and other issues there are different opinions, often opposite points of view, for example, exaggeration of the role of syntactic criteria in characterizing functional-semantic types of speech or, on the contrary, ignoring this indicator. The most reliable criterion for distinguishing and distinguishing different types was not found.

It seems that the most fruitful basis for the isolation of functional-semantic types of speech is to take into account the relationship of the logical-semantic principle and functional-syntactic. In particular, the character of the rhematic components of the text plays an important role in the formation and isolation of functional-semantic types of speech. The form and function of the form form the type of text.

G.A. Zolotov distinguishes the subject rheumatic dominant, qualitative, static-dynamic, impressive, static, actional [6].

Description structure. The descriptions are intended to characterize the characteristics of an object: these may be characteristics of natural phenomena, objects, persons, environments, experiments, machine parts, etc.

The most common type of description is with a quality or subject matter. Such descriptions are static. Logical stress emphasizes the names of quality, more broadly a sign or name of objects.

Examples of descriptions with quality rem:

1. Spring in Fialta is cloudy and dull. Everything is wet: pinto barrels of plane trees, juniper, fences, gravel. Far away, in a pale lumen, in the uneven frame of bluish houses, who had difficulty rising from their knees and gropingly seeking support (the cemetery cypress stretches behind them), the vaguely contoured mountain of St. George is less than ever similar to the color shots from her, which immediately await tourists (from nineteen hundred and ten, approximately, judging by the hats of ladies and youth cab drivers), crowding in a frozen carousel, stand between the grin of amethyst crystals and sea ​​rococo shells. There is no wind, the air is warm, it gives away fumes. The sea, sunken and desalinated by rain, is dull olive (V. Nabokov. Spring in Fialta).

Here words calling for quality are logically distinguished, signs are cloudy and boring, wet, similar to color images, in amethyst crystals; warm; dull olive. The verbs of this passage are non-romantic, they do not express active action, more often they are participle forms with the meanings of attributes (as part of definitive turns).

2. Aspen (Aspen, Rogolovik) grows predominantly under aspen from mid-summer to late September. The cap is fleshy, spherical at first, then pillow-shaped. The color of the cap is yellowish-red, brown-red, orange-red. The bottom surface of the cap is white at first, then gray. The stem is straight, high, thickened at the base, white with dark or brown scales. The flesh is dense, white, when broken, first turns blue, then becomes black and violet (Pop. Medical Encycl.).

This passage is built entirely on the type of description in its purest form. The quality names that characterize an object ( meaty, spherical, pincushion, yellowish-red, brown-red, orange-red; first white; straight, high, thickened at the base, white with dark or brown scales; dense, white, becomes black purple ). The verbs that are used here are used in a special quality: the verb “grows” has the meaning of a sign, as well as the verbs “gray”, “blue”, are directly placed in the “indicative” context (they appear in homogeneous series with adjectives).

The value of quality, rather properties, can be transferred in another way. Here is an example of the description, where, along with the usual way of conveying qualitative meaning by using adjective names, verb forms are used in a special way (this is a typical case of a scientific description of an animal species):

Representatives of the genus of forest voles (Clethrionomus) differ from other voles by fur color. On his back he is reddish, red or red-red in almost all species, most of them have redheads on their sides. Distributed in forest landscapes throughout North America and Eurasia ...

Red-backed vole is a western species of Eurasia. Its range goes from Western Europe to the East to the Yenisei and Altai. In the forests of Western Siberia, the number of these rodents is small, but they are almost always numerous in European forests: broadleaf, birch-aspen, mixed and coniferous. Settled in the gardens, but the fields, even adjacent to the forest, rarely go out and only a few individuals. Shelters in shallow burrows, laid in loose forest soil and among the roots of trees and shrubs. They feed on grass, seeds of trees in summer ... In winter, they eat shoots and bark of shrubs and trees (Animal Life).

Verbs here (they are logically distinguished, which is reinforced and positionally) denote the properties inherent to the described type of voles, this is their characteristic, such forms of the present tense have a timeless meaning.

Examples of descriptions with the subject mode:

In a large semicircle, the city settled in the sun: colorful houses then walked in smooth rows, accompanied by round trees, then crookedly slid down the slopes, stepping on their own shadows - and one could distinguish movement on First Boulevard and a special twinkle at the end where the famous fountain played. And even further, towards the smoky folds of the hills that closed the horizon, dark ripples of oak groves stretched, here and there the lake gleamed like a hand mirror - and other bright ovals of water gathered, burning in a gentle fog, over there in the west, where it began life radiant Stropi (V. Nabokov. Invitation to the penalty).

In this passage, the names of objects appear to be the percussion; it is they who constitute the background of the picture described (the subject is in the broad conceptual sense of the word): the city, the fountain, the lake, the Strop River; there and then the nouns of the verb - flicker, movement, ripples. Verbs either designate a location in space ( walked, crawled, settled in the sun, where it began, stretched ), or properties ( played a fountain, sparkled a lake ), or fix the moment of perception ( it was possible to distinguish ), i.e. All these are not active action verbs, but transmitting a message about the presence of objects at the moment of their perception.

Or again: The old manor house stood in a valley. In the evenings, cold fog was smoking around. The frogs snatched in the surrounding swamps, and before the headache smelled of wild rosemary (K. Paustovsky. Black Sea).

Approximately the same thing is observed in the following text:

It was a clear, blue lake with an extraordinary expression of water. In the middle, a completely large cloud was reflected. On the other side, on a hill densely covered with wood greens (which is even more poetic than darker), an old black tower (V. Nabokov. Cloud, lake, tower) rose directly from dactyl to dactyl .

Here the names of the lake, cloud, tower are rhematic . Moreover, the “objective” context is actively emphasized by the “quality”: a blue lake with an extraordinary expression of water; big cloud; poetic, darker; old black tower. Verbs reflected, rose again convey the impression of what he saw.

Another example with the subject rem:

The road from Colombo along the ocean goes in coconut forests. Слева, в их тенистой дали, испещренной солнечным светом, под высоким навесом перистых метелок-верхушек, разбросаны сингалезские хижины, такие низенькие по сравнению с окружающим их тропическим лесом. Справа, среди высоких и тонких, в разные стороны и причудливо изогнутых темно-кольчатых стволов, стелются глубокие шелковистые пески, блещет золотое, жаркое зеркало водной глади и стоят на ней грубые паруса первобытных пирог, утлых сигароподобных дубков. На песках, в райской наготе, валяются кофейные тела черноволосых подростков (И. Бунин. Братья).

Как видим, и этот отрывок структурно оказывается похожим на другие описания с предметной ремой. Это всегда картина, наблюдаемая со стороны. Еще одна важная деталь – глаголы если и обозначают движение, то это не движение наблюдаемых предметов, а скорее «движение мысли» наблюдателя.

Примеры описаний с ремой динамического состояния: изменения в состоянии здесь не связаны с активным проявлением действий каких-либо субъектов или объектов; это фазисные переходы от одного состояния к другому, наблюдаемые со стороны.

Как правило, это описание изменений в природе, восприятие этих изменений:

А наутро солнце опять взошло в ясной синеве. Последние клочки туч беспорядочно неслись еще по небу; море стихало , колыхаясь и, как будто, стыдясь своего ночного разгула... Синие, тяжелые, волны все тише бились о камни, сверкая на солнце яркими, веселыми брызгами (В. Короленко. Мгновение).

The main accents of such a description are on verbs denoting phase changes of states, a change in the degree of qualities. Often in such descriptions and forms of a comparative degree (they fought quieter ).

Most of the following text passage is built in the same way - fixing a decrease in some qualities and a rise in others:

День начинает заметно бледнеть. Лица людей принимают страшный оттенок, тени человеческих фигур лежат на земле бледные, неясные. Пароход, идущий вниз, проплывает каким-то призраком. Его очертания стали легче, потеряли определенность красок. Количество света, видимо, убывает; но так как нет сгущенных теней вечера, нет игры отраженного на низших слоях атмосферы света, то эти сумерки кажутся необычны и странны. Пейзаж будто расплывается в чем-то; трава теряет зелень, горы как бы лишаются своей тяжелой плотности (В. Короленко. На затмении).

Динамическое описание может основываться и на использовании глаголов активного действия, однако это действия, опять-таки наблюдаемые со стороны, действия, не совершаемые во времени, а действия, характеризующие лицо, предмет:

Субоч был человек стремительный. Он влетал в класс как метеор. Фалды его сюртука разлетались. Пенсне сверкало. Журнал, со свистом рассекая воздух, летел по траектории и падал на стол. Пыль завивалась вихрями за спиной латиниста. Класс вскакивал, гремя крышками парт, и с таким же грохотом садился. Застекленные двери звенели. Воробьи за окнами срывались с тополей и с треском уносились в глубину сада.

Таков был обычный приход Субоча (К. Паустовский. Далекие годы. «Золотая латынь»)[7].

В следующем отрывке элементы статического и динамического описания перемежаются, в целом рисуется картина прошлого. Активные когда-то действия словно застыли в какой-то момент, чтобы в настоящем предстать в виде впечатлений отстраненных и отчужденных от стороннего наблюдателя, когда-то бывшего активным участником описываемых событий.

Вода в озере была черная. Со дна пузырями поднимался болотный газ.

Мы удили на этом озере окуней. Мы привязывали длинные лески к кустам багульника или к деревцам молодой ольхи, а сами сидели на поваленных соснах и курили, пока куст багульника не начинал рваться и шуметь или не сгибалось и трещало деревцо ольхи. Тогда мы лениво подымались, тащили за леску и выволакивали на берег жирных черных окуней. Чтобы они не уснули, мы клали их в свои следы, в глубокие ямы, налитые водой, и окуни били в воде хвостами, плескались, но уйти никуда не могли(К. Паустовский. Мещерская сторона).

Описание с импрессивной ремой опирается на слова категории состояния, отвлеченные имена существительные, обозначающие чувства, состояния, качественно-оценочные прилагательные и наречия. Это описание внешнего или внутреннего мира через эмоциональное впечатление субъекта:

Было холодно, пронзительно сыро, темно от туч; на их черноте густая зелень мокрого сада выделялась особенно густо, свежо и ярко (И. Бунин. Митина любовь).

В следующем отрывке также можно выделить рематические компоненты, содержащие описание эмоциональных впечатлений субъекта:

В своих «закатных» письмах великий иностранный художник говорит о том, что ко всему остыл, во всем разуверился, все разлюбил, все – кроме одного. Это одно –живой романтический трепет, до сих пор его охватывающий при мысли об убогости его молодых лет по сравнению с роскошной полнотой пройденной жизни, со снежным блеском ее вершины, достигнутой им. Та первоначальная безвестность, те потемки поэзии и печали, в которых молодой художник был затерян на равных правах с миллионом малых сих, его теперь притягивают, возбуждая в нем волнение и благодарность – судьбе, промыслу, а также собственной творческой воле. Посещение мест, где он бедствовал когда-то, встречи с ничем не замечательными стариками-сверстниками полны для него такого сложного очарования, что изучения всех подробностей этих чувств хватит ему и на будущий загробный досуг духа (В. Набоков. Весна в Фиальте).

Естественно, что здесь перечислены далеко не все возможные модификации рематических компонентов. Но ясно, что это такие компоненты, которые способны присоединить определительно-качественные распространители.

Структура повествования. Повествование дает представление о развитии событий, их последовательности. Этот тип предложения в тексте акцентирует внимание на активных действиях, процессах, порядке протекания действий. Глаголы здесь, в отличие от глаголов в описании, всегда акциональны, они в полном объеме передают свойственные им лексические значения. Текст передает активную смену событий, поэтапную смену явлений.

С точки зрения способа выражения рематических компонентов высказывания повествование может иметь разную форму, однако эти различия не столь многочисленны, как в структуре описания; все они так или иначе связаны с характеристикой активного проявления действия, с указанием на переход от одного действия к другому. Следовательно, главный признак повествования – динамичность, активность глагольной формы, ее полнозначность и полновесность. Поэтому часто встречаются в таких отрывках текста глаголы мгновенного действия, глаголы совершенного вида.

Цербер тихо и как-то жалобно взвизгивал. Бедному псу, по-видимому, тоже становилось страшно, ввиду наступающего царства мертвящего мороза; он прижимался ко мне и, задумчиво вытягивая острую морду, настораживая чуткие уши, внимательно вглядывался в беспросветно-серую мглу.

Вдруг он повел ушами и заворчал. Я прислушался. Сначала все было по-прежнему тихо. Потом в этой напряженной тишине выделился звук, другой, третий... В морозном воздухе издали несся слабый топот далеко по лугам бегущей лошади.

Подумав об одиноком всаднике, которому, судя по слабому топоту, предстояло проехать еще версты три до слободы, я быстро сбежал с крыши по наклонной стенке и кинулся в юрту. Минута в воздухе с открытым лицом грозила отмороженным носом или щекою. Цербер, издав громкий, торопливый лай в направлении конского топота, последовал за мной (В. Короленко. Соколинец).

Как видим, активные глаголы в этом отрывке передают этапы действий. Глаголы «держат» на себе текст, фиксируя смену событий ( пес повел ушами, заворчал; я прислушался, выделился звук, другой; быстро сбежал, кинулся в юрту; последовал за мной ). Another example:

An hour at the hour came Aylyp for his bride. He pulled her scythe out of the river, reeled in on itself, and they ran for a run through the forest. We ran to the cut path, and there six horses were cooked. Ailip sat down on a horse, set his bride on another, took a four on the grounds, and even started up, how much horse power was enough. At the same time, the couple will change to another and drive again. A chanterelle ahead. So it was a stele, so it was a stele, a horse that was going to zador - not to catch up with de. By evening, they still managed to get to the lake . Ailip went straight to the shuttle, and even carried his bride with a chanterelle to the lake stone. Only came up - in the stone the course opened; they go there, and at that time the sun just went down (P. Bazhov. Golden Hair).

A special kind of narration consists of texts in which the dynamics of actions are transmitted not by verb forms (they are absent altogether), but nominative. Such stories are particularly dynamic and expressive:

Past the house - trot into the cage. Lay under the fence. Deaf speaking. The sound of stirrups. Creaking saddles. Closer (M. Sholokhov. Quiet Don) [8].

Other varieties of narrative context are possible, which differ precisely in the nature of the rheumatic components. In particular, verbs can be custom-action. Active actions in such cases are presented as constantly repeated, as characteristic of this or that person, subject. This story is very close to the description.

In his (Count Sheremetev) houses, in St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kuskovo, until the end of his life, tables were laid for poor nobles, often up to one hundred appliances, out of a dozen or more dishes - Sheremetev himself never ate more than three meals.

He went on a hunt accompanied by no less than fifty nobles, with whom he benefited, and having at least 700 people with him nobles, such as: grooms, chandeliers, cooks, etc .; tents, tents, huge reserves followed him by large wagons.

He visited his neighbors, also accompanied by several hundred horse guides; but, in spite of such pomp of trips, he was very fond of seclusion, and even at one time he wanted to get a haircut, carry water, firewood in his cell and sweep out his own hands (MI Pylyaev. Old Moscow).

In a narrative context, the rheumatic components are able to be propagated by object-conditioned components.

The structure of reasoning. Along with the texts of the ascertaining or representing type, texts that reason with a functional type of speech are common. This way of presenting implements a communication plan of a different plan: evidence, explanations, definitions, messages of an output character.

In the FSTR, arguing the content, input-modal words are often used; conditional, concessive and causal relationships; relationship of opposition and comparison. The model of the text fragment is typical: thesis - proof (argumentation) - conclusion (conclusion, generalization). Often this model is implemented within the framework of the classical paragraph. Actually, the reasoning can be presented both explicitly, with lexical signals of causal and other connections, and implicitly, when these connections are found on a logical-semantic level.

Take an example:

There is a current idea that the material poverty of a society is reflected, and moreover, directly, and on its spiritual poverty. And vice versa: material abundance entails - or must entail - the spiritual wealth as well.

Objective historical observations do not support this thesis. [...]

I would be very interested if someone could convincingly show me that the listed societies that have attained a high level of general material well-being, such as Sweden, Holland, Switzerland , also showed true spiritual wealth. It is true that they contributed and contribute something to the world science and technology, but science, like technology, mainly refers to a number of spiritual values, rather than intellectual values. From the very beginning, a distinction should be made between these two rows of phenomena. The mentality of a certain type, which is now very widespread, does not distinguish the spiritual and intellectual. [...]

If we understand and assimilate this distinction between two kinds of phenomena, the spiritual and the intellectual, then it will become clear that spiritual wealth is by no means directly dependent on the wealth of the material. Only two degrees of material wealth are badly reflected in spiritual activity: poverty and luxury. The first forces everyone to struggle to survive, the second leads to the pursuit of wealth increase or satiety, devastation, mental delays in the psyche (D. Andreev. Rosa the world. Book XI. Chapter 2).

In the first paragraph, the initial thesis is formulated here ( there is a representation ), then the author's judgment on this score goes in a negative form. The following text argues the idea expressed in a generalized categorical form: relations are conditional, concessive, comparative.

In the following passage, one can also observe logical development, movement of thought: conditionality of judgments, temporal correlation, concession, conditional and adversary relationships of parts within the context, often served by an intensifying accent; harsh assertion and denial, contributing a polemical tone to the statement:

When the name of Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev is pronounced, not only “Hunter's Notes”, “Noble Nest”, “Fathers and Sons” (and all novels), not only “Poems in Prose” and “Spring Waters”, not only Spasskoe immediately appear in consciousness. - Lutovinovo, but Paris and Polina Viardot also appear immediately. It is possible to calculate (experts and calculated) how many years the Russian writer spent in total abroad. They say almost half a life. Perhaps, perhaps ... However, I dare to say that Turgenev did not leave Russia for a single day. I left Russia, but not from Russia . [...]

If a person sits at a desk over a sheet of paper and writes “Hunter’s Notes”, it’s permissible to ask where he really is - in Paris, on Douai Street, or near a fire with peasant children, in the middle of the night meadow Bezhina? After all, Gogol lived in Rome and wrote Dead Souls there.

The tragedy of the writer begins when he ceases to feel his audience, when his word does not find a response, but leaves, as in cotton wool. By the way, such a misfortune can happen to a writer, if he sits even in the very middle of his country, it is enough for him to lose his spiritual connection with the reader, and even more loudly - with the people.

Turgenev never lost this connection, even for a single moment (V. Soloukhin. Turgenev's lessons).

A feature of the construction of the following passage, given in the form of reasoning, is stringing up the questions in the first part, the answers to which are further disclosed by the author’s reasoning in the affirmative plan:

“Where the line between prose and poetry is, ” wrote Leo Tolstoy, “I will never understand.” With a rare fervor for him, he asks in his "Diary of Youth":

“Why is poetry so closely connected with prose, happiness with misfortune? How to live? Suddenly try to combine poetry with prose or enjoy one and then indulge in the other? In the dream there is a side that is higher than reality. In fact, there is a party that is beyond dreams. Full happiness would be a mix of both. ”

In these words, although spoken hastily, the correct idea was expressed: the highest, endearing phenomenon in literature, genuine happiness can only be an organic combination of poetry and prose, or, more precisely, prose, filled with the essence of poetry, its picturesque juices, transparent air, captivating power.

In this case, I am not afraid of the word "captivating" (in other words - "taking captive"). Because poetry captures, captivates and in an imperceptible way, but with irresistible force elevates a person and brings him closer to the state when he really becomes a decoration of the earth, or, as innocent but sincerely our ancestors said, “the crown of creation” (K. Paustovsky. Golden Rose).

But another type of reasoning. There are no verbally expressed causal relationships, there are no conditional and temporal relations within the intercommunal unity. The reasoning is based on assertions and denials, oppositions and comparisons. The polemical nature of the reasoning is quite soft, unaddressed in relation to the intended opponent. Questions provoking a form of "dispute" are addressed to the author himself, who immediately gives clear and unambiguous answers.

At first it may seem that Bunin’s theme of the merging of people with the natural world is still somewhat distracting, in terms of man’s relation to nature, there is no moment of active beginning. But it is not so. Of course, the glorified Russian nature is beautiful in itself. Bunin's landscapes, where wildflowers surprise with “beauty of shyness” (“Wildflowers”), where “they smell strong in the ravines with mushroom dampness” (“No birds are seen ...”), were fascinated by very demanding readers, for example L. Tolstoy. But, after all, the association of nature with human properties arose from Bunin's conviction: the source of beauty on earth is above all human labor. “It is so good to lay your feet on the velvet of a warm furrow” - the beauty of these lines is not in one juicy metaphor, but in the poetry of the work of a plowman (“Plowman”).

Doesn't Bunin idealize peasant labor? There are two sides to the question. Labor in its creative essence deserves enthusiastic approval. But there is still a social aspect of activity, in its assessment a different intonation is needed. Do you understand this Bunin? Of course. He was called the poet of a manor’s estate mourning the outgoing landlord Russia. This is not the whole truth. In prose, as we shall see, the controversial position of the writer clearly manifests itself, but in poetry it is not unequivocal.

Sadness for the old and cozy masterly living room is. But read the poem "Wasteland". The memory of the past is prompted to the poet by sad, full of tragedy lines, addressed to the deceased in the village churchyard: “Peace to you, long forgotten! - Who knows their names are simple? They lived - in fear, in obscurity - they died. Sometimes in the village they forged chains, marked them, drove them to the settlement ... Peace be with you, not avenged ones! ” No, Bunin does not call for revenge, but the spoken word conveys the power of the poet's passive feeling (P. Nikolayev. From the preface to the collection of works by I. Bunin "Poetry and Prose").

Among the functional and semantic types of speech, there are also such varieties as definition and explanation, which are associated with the special character of the text (reference, instructional, educational and methodical, etc.).

Here is an example of the construction of the definition and characteristics of the concept:

Anagram ( from the Greek. Ana - re-and gramma - letter ) - a word or phrase formed by rearranging the letters of another word or word combination. Used when creating pseudonyms (for example, “Khariton Makentik” from “Antiochus Cantemir”), they are found in riddles, charades (SES).

An explanation for this kind of text is also characteristic. By the way, the definition (definition) is peculiar to a strictly scientific text, whereas the explanation of the concept is preferred in the texts of popular science and teaching. The definition aims to reveal the essence of the concept through an indication of the signs that distinguish it from the series. The explanation of the concept has a different goal setting, its pragmatics is different - to achieve understanding as a response from the reader.

Let's compare the interpretation of the word in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova. M., 1995) and in the book by M.I. Pylyaev "Old Moscow" (M., 1996):

Yama, s, g. 4. Transfer Prison, detention room (outdated). Debt pit (Dictionary. S. 905-906).

The Pit was also called the temporary prison. She was temporarily named because the debtors were kept here until the debt was paid. The name "pits" she received from the steep slope to the side of the White City. According to other legends, a recess for the mint was deliberately dug here, this deepening gave the prison to be called the “pit”, and indeed, coming up to it from the courtyard and leaning on the railing, you could see below, half down the depths, the other a small oblong courtyard covered with slab stone and housing around it (Old Moscow, p. 360).

The second text not only defines the meaning of the word, but also explains the reason for using this word in such a meaning, and this is done in sufficient detail with the use of additional evidence.

Here is another example to explain:

“... Three bursaks were turned off the big road to the side so that they could stock up on food supplies in the first farm they found. These were: the theologian Khalyava, the philosopher Homa Brut, and the rhetorician Tiberius Gorobets (N. Gogol. Viy). "

Who were the theologian, philosopher and orator? Only seminary students, only different degrees of study: theologians called senior class seminarists, middle class philosophers , and junior rhetoricians . The basis for such a name was the name of the subject in the school program of this age group [9].

Cf .: Ritor ( Greek: rhetor), speaker in Dr. Greece and Rome, from the 3rd c. BC e. also a teacher or student of the rhetorical school (SES).

Within the framework of the text “reasoning”, it is possible to single out a kind of “output message”, summarizing the course of reasoning, the author's arguments.

For example: In conclusion, it should be noted that consideration of such a particular phenomenon as the use of means of expressing the category of quantity in various functional styles of the English language makes it possible to draw conclusions on a wider range of issues, namely, about the interpenetration of abstract and sensual components of thinking common for all languages and also about the possibility of dependence of the use of certain means of expressing the category of quantity on the general emotionality of the statement and the social status of the speaker (I.S. Kurakhtanova. On some means of expressing categories of quantity in various functional styles // Text stylistics in the communicative aspect. Perm, 1987. P. 96).

It is clear that this kind of functional-semantic type of speech is more acceptable in the text of the scientific, rather than artistic.

It is impossible not to say about one more type of speech, generated by a special target setting of the text and its special purpose. This type of speech is cultivated in the texts of the instructional plan, the peculiarity of the structure of the statements of which is the use of the incentive forms of predicates. Such types of speech organization fall out of the three-part classification, not fitting into its framework (texts of instructions, methodological developments, “good” advice, recommendations, guidelines, medical and culinary recipes, etc.).

For example: Goose or hot smoked duck with nut sauce (satsivi). Take off the flesh from the goose or duck and cut it into thin slices; celery salad, green salad cut into strips, baked eggplants - slices; mix everything, season with nut sauce (satsivi) and put in a salad bowl, top with slices of poultry, celery greens and green salad, sprinkle with dill (Cooking. M., 1995).

Possible options in the expression of predicates:

The fish taken out of the container is put into a bath and poured with water ... It is not recommended to thaw the fish in warm water, as this results in the loss of valuable substances and the finished products from such fish are tasteless. When thawing, add salt to water ( 7–10 g salt per 1 liter of water) to reduce the loss of minerals ...

Care must be taken that the defrosted fish is not subjected to strong mechanical stress (ibid.).

So, consideration of the ways of presentation, or functional-semantic types of speech, leads to the conclusion that these types differ in their speech organization, the basis for such a distinction should be considered primarily a pragmatic text setting, especially for texts of more or less standard type, with clear communicative model. Texts with non-standard speech structure (most of all artistic) also take into account the pragmatic attitude of the author, his personal style of writing.

The more standard texts, the more predictable ways of text formation. By tradition, there are three FSTR - description, narration and reasoning. However, the analysis of different texts leads to the conclusion that such an overly generalized division is insufficient. In particular, when we go beyond the limits of the artistic text (conventionally, one can focus on these three types, although the dialogical text somewhat does not fit into this framework), then such a division is clearly insufficient. It is especially difficult to “keep within” within the framework of reasoning, where, along with reasoning itself, one can find a definition, an explanation, an output message, etc. The methodological and instructive literature also needs to be adjusted in this sense in the application of this typology, since it focuses on a specific type utterances, type of text message of the recommendatory plan, which is created by a special form of the rhematic component of the utterance, in particular, an infinitive form of the verb in the incentive meaning or verb forms in a vaguely personal sense.

В целом же, при характеристиках обобщенного плана, когда выявляются преимущественные типы речи, можно с некоторой степенью допущения утверждать, что для художественного текста характерно описание при характеристике предмета, портрета, пейзажа, окружающей обстановки; повествование – при перечислении активных действий, их смене во времени; рассуждение – при отступлениях автора, объясняющих поведение персонажей, при выражении позиций морально-нравственного, психологического порядка и др.

Для научного текста характерны все типы речи, но избирательность их определяется опять-таки характером контекста: рассуждение – при изложении концептуальной информации; описание – при характеристике изучаемого объекта; повествование – при рассказе о становлении научного знания, истории открытия и т.д. Более того, можно, видимо, отметить, что сам предмет науки «настраивает» на преимущественный тип речи: точные науки тяготеют к описанию и рассуждению; социологические и философские – к рассуждению; естественные – к описанию, исторические – к повествованию и т.д. Справочная литература ориентируется на описание; учебно-методическая и инструктивная – на описание и инструктирование.

Разумеется, во всех этих случаях речь идет лишь о преимущественном типе изложения. В реальных текстах дело обстоит гораздо сложнее и подчас менее предсказуемо.

Вообще выделение типов речи внутри разных текстообразований дело условное, в «чистом» виде они присутствуют крайне редко, и объем таких кусков текста непредсказуем: это может быть отдельное высказывание, построенное по тому или иному типу; межфразовое единство или абзац; некоторый фрагмент текста, т.е. границы типов речи не обусловлены границами текстовых единиц. Это еще раз свидетельствует о том, что функционально-смысловой тип речи – это не отрывок текста, не составляющая единица текста, а способ организации сообщения, способ изложения внутри текстовых единиц.

Анализ речевой организации текста свидетельствует о том, что реально разные типы речи перемежаются, образуя некоторые сложные смешанные типы, где контекстуально сочетаются и описание, и повествование, и рассуждение. Разные типы изложения могут по-разному комбинироваться, переходить из одного в другой на разной протяженности текста.

Возьмем следующий отрывок (из мемуарной литературы):

Зинаида Николаевна, Леня и еще двое каких-то людей смотрели в темной столовой телевизор. Я поздоровалась и прошла на веранду. Я переставила станки, но портрет был еще закрыт, когда на веранду внезапно вошел низкорослый хромой старик с густой копной белых прямых волос на крупной голове. Черты его были мелкие, но правильные, голубые глаза под седыми кустистыми бровями смотрели одновременно пронзительно и уклончиво, приглашая к контакту и ускользая. Он церемонно поклонился и, не представившись, стал несколько косноязычно и невнятно хвалить