Lecture
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Among the researchers of inter-role conflict caused by the excessive number of roles that one individual has to perform, it should be noted the concept of role tensions of the American social psychologist W. Good.
The central element of analysis in Hood's theory is the state of role tension in an individual, i.e. experiencing difficulties in performing role duties, which arises as a result of an excessive number of roles that one person has to perform. It should be noted that the author considers such a state as natural, since, in his opinion, in general, the total role-playing duties of an individual are always excessive. Hence, the main task that arises for an individual is not to remove this conflict, but to make the total role system (common role set) manageable and distribute his energy and skills in performing role duties in order to find ways to reduce role strain to some tolerable degree. The author notes that the successful management of inter-role conflict depends on two factors:
1) the degree of freedom in manipulating the individual with his role structure, which is determined by the social structure, organization or expectations of the group members:
2) individual mechanisms, the use of which can help an individual to organize his role system and to achieve a more advantageous agreement or decision in this role.
Goode describes two groups of methods for reducing role tensions: one concerns the prevention of role conflict, the other adapts to it if the individual is already involved in role conflict. Their application depends on what stage of the role interaction the individual is in: whether he decides whether to join or not to enter into a role relationship, or whether he is already in a role relationship and he is faced with the question of which actual roles he should choose . Essentially, it is either about prevention of role conflict, or about adaptation to it, if an individual is involved in it.
The author analyzes the individual mechanisms of easing role tensions in the most detail, with an emphasis on subjective assessments and perceptions of the role. Relief of role tension becomes possible due to the ability of the individual to manipulate his role structure or the so-called "I" - the role system. Here the individual has at his disposal the following specific techniques: division, delegation, reduction, evasion.
Separation as a method of reducing role-playing tensions at a psychological level is defined as the ability of an individual to ignore the problem of consistency, consistency. The meaning of this technique is that the individual, in formulating his requirements for others, considers them reasonable only for some specific situations. This method of reducing role-playing tensions is well expressed by the dictum “To each is his own” or “to Caesar — Caesar's, and to God — Gods.” The process of separation depends mainly on the context (meaning) of a particular situation. In the domestic literature, this process is described as a mechanism of role autonomy. Its essence is that an individual, being in a situation of inter-role conflict, tries to play a more important role in a particular situation to the detriment of a secondary one, and thus becomes independent of the latter, shows a certain autonomy in relation to it. The same mechanism operates in the conditions of intra-role conflict.
Delegation is the ability to allocate your role duties. Thus, the head of the laboratory assigns a part of his duties to his subordinates, appointing a person responsible for a specific section of the plan or the amount of work, while he acts as a coordinator. But this technique has a limit, because there are role-based duties that cannot be passed on to anyone. So, a manager cannot delegate a decision-making function. A student cannot delegate exams.
Reduction of role connections is rather difficult to implement, because role-based duties are related to the position held, and if the role set in this case seems to the individual excessive and difficult to implement, then he should probably change jobs. Sometimes it is possible legalized role-cutting, for example, retirement, or the decision to find something "simpler" (for example, purely performing work and leave with the governing).
Expansion of role relationships is the opposite of the previous one. This is a peculiar and paradoxical device. Its essence is to refer to a large number of role-playing duties as excuses, to possible excuses. Increasing the role set in this case leads to a decrease in the feeling of tension, due to a decrease in the level of performance required for every duty. However, this increase in role relationships cannot last for long.
Evasion of imposing incipient or even ongoing role relationships. For example, being at a high professional level and holding a high position, someone hires a deputy, or at some critical moment suddenly takes a vacation, or goes on a business trip. All the techniques described above actually reflect the manipulation of their role structure.
The second group of ways to reduce role tensions is to adapt to the situation of role conflict. In this case, any role relationship is viewed as a process of “negotiation” or “trade transaction”. The author builds the whole process of role-playing decision by analogy with economic (trade) transactions, i.e. considers it as a role-playing market, where bargaining is performed for role-playing actions of different prices ("I will do this, but you will remove something else from me").
The main group, where the individual learns how to resolve intergeneric conflicts, is the family. She, in Hood’s opinion, holds a key position in teaching the individual to basic procedures, methods of balancing role-playing tension.
Thus, the author under the role of tension understands the feeling of difficulty in performing role duties. Most often, this condition arises in an individual in a situation of inter-role conflict as a result of a multiplicity of roles and different expectations for them. Resolving this situation is possible if the individual can restructure and actively regulate his role set, and put time and energy into dependence on the importance of roles and sanctions, which may cause non-fulfillment of the role and reactions of others to certain roles.
Considerable attention to mechanisms for resolving inter-role conflicts is given in the approach of J. Toby. Unlike W. Good, he considers RK as a consequence of the imperfect integration of the social system and personal characteristics, skills of role performers (that is, the inconsistency of the formal and informal relationship systems).
A well-integrated social structure is understood to be one in which the following conditions are maintained during operation.
1. Each status must have a definite and only role connected in such a way that each individual occupying this status knows automatically what role he must play.
2. The definition of the role should be clear, consistent and free from any ambiguities.
3. Different roles should be clearly demarcated and not intersected.
4. The same role should not contain contradictory requirements, and all actions prescribed for it should be directed to one goal - the implementation of a specific social function (group task, etc.).
5. The social structure (organization, group) must define the boundaries of statuses in such a way that they also satisfy the individual in it.
6. The social structure will have greater stability, and the personality in it will be less prone to conflicts if the relationship between formal and informal roles is in favor of the former.
7. Roles must be compatible with each other and consistent in time, then they will be unequivocal and free from contradictions. However, these conditions describe the ideal (reference) social structure, i.e. how it should be, with what we don’t meet in practice. Therefore, the concept of realistic RK and pseudo-role conflict is introduced. Realistic role conflict means a situation in which the requirements of the two groups are institutionally defined as legitimate, but in which there are no institutionally established rules to make the requirements compatible. This is the so-called realistic conflict. A section manager or department manager in a general store may require the seller to be in the department all the time and provide information and services to customers. Later, the manager may express dissatisfaction with the fact that the seller spends too much time on customers and pays little attention to replenishing the department with goods, since this is also his responsibility. And the seller takes the instructions on what to do and what not to do, as incompatible.
Along with this, there is a pseudo-role conflict, which appears even where realistic role-playing conflicts are impossible, the type of conflict is mainly determined by the personal characteristics of the role performer. Pseudo-role conflicts include situations in which "the requirements of the two groups are institutionally defined as legitimate, fair, but where the art (skill) of the individual can prevent conflicts from occurring." For example, experiences arising from the need for two meetings at the same time, but in different places remote from each other, could have been avoided with a reasonable organization of their working day and time.
Two main mechanisms for resolving the Republic of Kazakhstan are being put forward. One is built on the principle of hierarchy. The other is on the principle of segregation. The essence of the first is that role expectations in society are to a large extent expectations of a hierarchical order, i.e. Some role expectations and responsibilities take precedence over others. However, there are always such conflicting role expectations that are not easy to classify on a hierarchical basis. Then, in order to provide support (priority) to a preferred role, a person begins to look for an explanation or justification, which can be considered as a way out of role conflict.
To implement the principle of hierarchy, there are a number of specific techniques that have developed in society and are used to solve the dilemmas of everyday life. These include etiquette and tact.
Etiquette implements the ranking order of role requirements and prescribes a certain priority for performing role duties. For example, an elderly woman has an advantage over a young man in occupying a place in a crowded transport. Another technique is tact, which is the so-called “white lie”, the main purpose of which is to spare the feelings of others.
The second most important principle of resolution and prevention of the Republic of Kazakhstan is based on the principle of segregation. Its essence is that incompatible roles segregated (separated) by a time interval can be successfully performed, i.e. it is necessary to somehow isolate an individual subject to the Republic of Kazakhstan from those instances (groups of people) from which incompatible expectations arise. The ultimate goal is to protect the owners of conflicting positions from sanctions from others. As examples of the use of this principle, the following techniques are given:
- rejection of the role in one of the groups;
- setting one group against another;
- misrepresentation;
- redefinition of roles;
- leading a double life;
- exit or flight from the field of interaction;
- care of the disease.
Despite the various conflict resolution mechanisms described by the authors, they all ultimately focus on restructuring the cognitive structures and personal relationships of individuals involved in the conflict, leaving both the social environment and the sociopsychological expectations of groups unchanged.
Some researchers believe that most of us still manage to perform many roles with minimal conflict. This is because individuals who play incompatible roles are saved from the dilemma by dividing the audience from each other.
As practice and numerous studies show, inter-role conflicts are very common. In addition, there are such types of statuses, occupying which, people are forced to perform roles that contain conflicting rights and obligations, due to the fact that they have a double membership. These are the so-called marginal statuses. People occupying such a position are called marginalized or marginalized. Literally, the term "marginality" means "located on the edge" (from Lat. Marginalis).
The concept of a marginal person was formulated by R. Park in the study of interethnic conflicts and was popularized by E. Stoonquist. The marginal person, according to R. Park, is one who lives in two not just in different but antagonistic cultures and as if torn between attachments to one and the other. The duality of culture produces the duality of personality, which gives rise to a conflict situation for the individual. A marginal person is spoken of when an individual is a member of various groups, the norms of behavior in which contradict each other, and when he is not able to consider himself a full member of any of them and others do not consider him as such.
Due to the fact that marginal people are constantly on the border between two or more sociocultural worlds, but are not accepted by any of them as full participants, they form certain characteristics that were considered as signs of a psychological conflict experienced by an individual in this situation. He attributed the following to them:
- serious doubts about their personal value;
- uncertainty of connections with friends and constant fear of rejection;
- tendencies to avoid uncertain situations rather than risk humiliation;
- painful shyness in the presence of other people;
- fantasy and excessive dreaminess;
- excessive concern for the future and fear of any risky enterprise;
- the inability to enjoy and the confidence that others are treated unfairly.
The ideas of R. Park were developed by E. Stounkwist, who focused his attention on psychological experiences and the state of consciousness of the marginal person.
Describing the psychological state of the "marginal person", Stoinkwist uses the following expressions that reflect the high degree of severity of the conflict:
- disorganization;
- stunned;
- inability to determine the source of the conflict;
- feeling of "impregnable wall";
- unsuitability;
- failure;
- anxiety;
- anxiety;
- internal stress;
- isolation;
- estrangement;
- non-participation;
- constraint;
- disappointment;
- despair;
- the destruction of the "vital organization";
- mental disorganization;
- meaninglessness of existence;
- self-centeredness, ambition and aggressiveness.
Further, Stounkwist identified three phases of the evolution of the "marginal man":
1) the individual does not realize that his own life is engulfed in a cultural conflict, he only “absorbs” the dominant culture;
2) the conflict is experienced consciously - it is at this stage that the individual becomes a “marginal”;
3) successful and unsuccessful searches for adaptations to a conflict situation.
An explanatory model of the phenomenon of marginality of the social role and psychological conflict on this subject can be found in B. Mancini, who interprets this phenomenon as a “result”:
1) the lack of full membership in a positive reference group;
2) playing an intermediate role;
3) membership in marginal, by definition, groups, i.e. risk groups.
The concept of a marginal person has been developed by a number of researchers and is essentially interdisciplinary. She found wide distribution in theory and practice of organization management.
In the future, the concept of a marginal person expanded and began to include people who have the same duties as the more general group, but at the same time more restricted rights and opportunities. Recently, the “cultural-cultural” aspect of R. Park’s concept, ie understanding of role conflicts as a conflict of cultures that arises in the context of interpersonal communication, when the inability to recognize the "invisible" aspects of culture (perceptions, norms, etc.) or their ignoring lead to misunderstanding and conflict between partners.
At present, the dynamism of social life leads to the intensification of organizational changes at all levels of the social structure: from society to informal groups, so it should be borne in mind that the active collision of many reference groups and social "I" inherent in modern man, accompanied by experiences, suggests that varying degrees of conflict due to marginality everyone experiences. Hence, the growing popularity of research in line with the concept of marginality becomes clear.
The theory of resolution of the Republic of Kazakhstan N. Gross, W. Meisen and A. Maki-chernna focuses on the behavioral strategies of the individual experiencing the Republic of Kazakhstan.
As a result, “four alternative ways of behavior are described, through which he can resolve a conflict, in the sense of making a decision. A role performer can:
1) to comply with the expectations of one subject:
2) to comply with the expectations of another subject;
3) to perform a compromise behavior that represents an attempt to reconcile both expectations in part;
4) try to avoid matching with each of the expectations. "
In this case, the decision is a dependent variable of three variables: the relationship to the role (ie, how much the individual considers the role requirements legalized), the expected sanctions (positive or negative) and the subjective orientation of the performer of the role. In the latter case, three types of orientation are possible when making decisions in the Republic of Kazakhstan: moral, pragmatic (expedient) and moral-pragmatic.
1. Moral orientation is characterized by the fact that an individual, when solving a role conflict, will proceed from his attitude to the requirements of a role. He will fulfill the expectations that are, in his opinion, fair, and reject unjust, not paying attention to the sanctions that such behavior will entail. If both those and other incompatible expectations are fair at the same time, then he will assimilate (demonstrate) compromise behavior. If these expectations are perceived by them as unfair, then he will show an avoidable type of behavior.
2. Pragmatically oriented individuals will act in accordance with the expected sanctions that will follow, but their opinion, as a result of a particular role being played. Such a person will act in such a way as to minimize the negative sanctions that may follow in a situation of role conflict. In other words, such an individual will try to secure the best protection in terms of the severity of sanctions for non-compliance or other set of expectations. Where the individual, but his opinion, will receive more severe penalties for the discrepancy between the expected behavior from him, with that set of expectations, he will coordinate his behavior.
3. The third type of orientation is called moral and pragmatic. Individuals who are guided in this way take into account both variables when solving role conflicts: the legitimacy of expectations and the severity of sanctions. They tend to act on the basis of balancing, balancing these two quantities. Based on all combinations of variables included in the conflict resolution, the authors obtain 48 theoretically possible types of situations. As a result, it becomes possible to predict the commands of the individual in a situation of role conflict.
This kind of RK, as “I am the role conflict”, is most fully represented by T. Sarbin in the concept “I am the role agreement”. The term "I" refers to the perception of a person about himself. This is a cognitive structure that arises from past experience when interacting with other personalities or objects, things, organs of the body, etc. To explain the connection between "I" and the role of T. Sarbin introduces the concept of "I - role-playing consent" and its influence on role-playing. It is assumed that all other things being equal, when the characteristics of the “I” coincide with the requirements of the role, then its performance is more effective than in other cases when the role and the “I” are incongruent. “I am role-playing agreement” concerns, in the understanding of the author, the degree to which the qualities of “I” - features, values, beliefs, and the requirements of the role demonstrate between themselves complete or partial conformity. Empirical indicators "I - role-match" is the self-assessment of a person about the fulfillment of his role: if a person loves his role, fulfills it with a desire, is included in the role, then this is the case "I am role-match". Cases of extreme inconsistency between a role and “I” are considered as “I am a role conflict” or “I am an intrapersonal conflict”. In line with this approach, a series of both experimental and empirical studies was carried out. As an example, an experiment on the disruption of the status balance of Benoit-Smallline, which showed that under status "discrepancy" tension arises, which is especially strong when the assessment by status is central to the assessment of personality. This was shown in a study on subjects with high education who played the role of subordinates, while people with less education were leaders in organizing problem solving.
Studies in line with the program-role approach have shown that the most effective in the activity of the group have a complete set of roles and function as a “role ensemble”, while in ineffective groups there are significant distortions of the role structure or “dips” in the role structure (t. e. the absence of a particular role). The core of the ensemble, as a rule, is a kind of "small" group consisting of an "erudite", "generator", "critic", "leader", "performer". These are the main roles that are part of a single "role ensemble". The first three roles are addressed to the subject-functional field of interaction (ie, related to the solution of organizational, group tasks). The last two roles relate to the interaction of individuals within an informal group relationship. In reality, the range of roles in the "role-playing ensemble" is much broader and is determined by the nature of the activity and the tasks to be solved. Thus, when analyzing the activity of psycho-correction groups, the roles of “unifier”, “scapegoat”, “sectarian”, “innocent victim”, etc. are highlighted.
Harmonious groups are different and favorable psychological climate and greater cohesion. Experimental empirical studies have found a correspondence between sociometric (by business criterion) and role matrices (that is, positions are gained and put together according to the role). This means that carriers of complementary to each other cooperating roles (for example, a generator-critic) reveal both personal and business mutual sympathies, i.e. positive relationship. And carriers of competing roles (two generators, two critics, two performers), as a rule, are in a situation of mutual business and emotional non-choice, which creates conditions for conflict interaction.
It turned out that carriers of additional roles cooperating among themselves find each other more positive personal qualities than independent experts, while carriers of competing roles duplicating each other in the role structure of the group rate each other less than experts do.
It turned out that the most effective managers in their groups perform both creative and organizational functions, the performance of only one of their functions leads to a sharp decrease in the effectiveness of management. Adversely affects the effectiveness of leadership performance in the group of purely performing or purely critical functions. It can be argued with high probability that low indicators of the role of critic, which are characteristic of leaders of effective groups, correlate with a high degree of leadership, and vice versa, high indicators of the role of criticism, which are characteristic of leaders of ineffective groups, correlate with low efficiency of leadership. Based on this, it can be assumed that the effectiveness of leadership increases in those cases where the role of the critic is taken not by the head, but by one of the group members. An analysis of interpersonal relations when comparing elections and rejections with the role profile of a group member shows that, by a business criterion, carriers of the role of the performers are most often rejected, and the greatest number of rejections by the emotional criterion of the role of the critic. As a result, group members are often at the most disadvantageous position (if the role is about the research team), endowed with the ability to evaluate and criticize, but who do not give their own ideas or who cannot implement them.
Studying the influence of role relationships on conflicts in groups, E. G. Baranov introduced the concept of interpersonal role conflict. This kind of conflict arises when the role relationships in the group do not meet the requirements of the new situation. This is expressed in such types of contradictions as functional, operational and intrapersonal. The first two types of contradictions are resolved in appropriate interpersonal role conflicts. He also described typical informal roles that differ from each other in the level of conflict, the dominant target orientations and styles of behavior of their performers in conflict situations. The most conflicting roles, as the study showed, are the organizer, the master, the generator of ideas, the teacher. By the middle of conflict are - a champion of justice, rogue, mockingbird, critic, rebel, keeper of traditions. The peacemaker, the performer, the lazy, the administrator act as low-conflict ones. The list of conflicting roles was expanded in the study of Yu. I. Myagkov. The author has shown that interpersonal role conflicts often arise at the stage of introducing managerial innovations between carriers of such roles as “innovator” and “conservative”. The subject of these conflicts are new legal norms; new, in relation to generally accepted for the role, personal functions, ways of behavior, new rights and obligations leading to a change in the position of subjects in the existing system of relationships and relations.
Many scientists believe that one of the important factors for the prevention of role conflicts is the reference group. As such, a “team” can act as a special kind of target organized group. The most important starting point concerning the prevention and regulation of role conflicts is related to the concept of a common vision and optimal positioning of the team, which, according to some researchers, provides for leveling the contradictions between team members. The most important role in this process is communication in teamwork.
Communication is seen as the exchange of information between people in order to identify problems and find solutions. The concept of "communication" has a double meaning. Firstly, it fixes the static interaction, for example, an act, a written document that carries information and through this establishes and maintains actual contacts. Secondly, it captures the dynamics, interaction process, contacts, relationships.
Communication has an objective and subjective side. The objective side is connections that are independent of the characteristics of individuals, mediating and controlling the content and nature of the interaction; it is a system of official, service relations determined by the status of an official, prescriptions, instructions, rules, regulations, maps of functional duties, staffing. The subjective side is the conscious attitude of people towards each other, based on individuality. It is known that people behave differently in the same status position, i.e. adhere to different behaviors, different social roles.
The communicative process is carried out in terms of direct or indirect relationships with other people. The main goal of interpersonal communication is the achievement of mutual understanding. Communication is a social process that reflects the social structure and performs its connecting function: the achievement of a social community while maintaining the individuality of each of its elements. There are the following main functions of the communicative process.
1. Managerial (incentive relationship) is genetically and structurally baseline. Management communications are a set of informational links between the subjects of management activity vertically, horizontally (the internal environment) and with the external public environment. Communication in the management system is officially, legally regulated, purposeful movement of individual management subjects to the social community while maintaining a certain independence and individuality. In management activities, communicative interaction is carried out through the functional connections of the participants in management. In communication flows, synchronicity, reliability, and adequacy at all stages of the communicative process are important — in receiving, transmitting and processing information, in all elements of its structure.
2. Fatical, associated with the establishment and maintenance of contacts. The proclamation of organizational norms and values, the impact on the views and attitudes of people, the development of an understanding of the significance of change and improvement. Improving communication (interaction between employees of one or more units).
3. Informative is characterized by the transfer of real or fictional information, providing the provision and receipt of feedback. Interpersonal communications are associated with the expansion of knowledge and, as a result, develop such skills as the ability to effectively listen, prioritize, plan actions; change the attitudes of people and their behavior. The implementation of this function allows an employee to recognize and use all the possibilities of his personality in the context of teamwork.
4. Emotive (arousal of emotional experience) is realized in the form of encouragement in the organization of mutual cooperation and the development of a sense of community, encouraging people to action. It allows you to create a positive emotional background of business interaction in a team.
5. Incentive (persuasion, suggestion, order, request) provides incentives for team learning and knowledge sharing, maintaining continuous updating of employees' knowledge and achieving transparency. This function helps to create an environment of trust and mutual assistance in a team.
6. Regulatory (the formation of behavioral skills in everyday and conflict situations) is characterized by the development of joint problem solving algorithms. In the course of regulating and coordinating individual efforts with the subsequent creation of a single orderly organizational process, there is an increase in team members' confidence in their abilities.
Communication types are classified according to the following criteria.
1. According to the content of relations between the participants, they are different: interpersonal, public, mass. Mass communication is the systematic distribution of messages (through print, radio, television, cinema, sound recording, video recording) among large, dispersed audiences with the aim of asserting spiritual values and exerting ideological, political, economic or organizational impact on people's assessments, opinions and behavior. In the system of mass communication, communication in management is of particular importance.
2. By means of communication - speech (written and oral), paralinguistic (gesture, facial expression, melody), real-sign (products of production, visual arts).
3. According to the degree of adequacy, congruent communication is distinguished, in which all messages, verbal and non-verbal, correspond to a certain transmitted value. Pecongruent - there will be one in which words and behavior convey various contradictory messages. It is important to notice incongruent behavior as an interlocutor, so your own and be able to respond effectively to it.
4. According to the degree of arbitrariness, intentional and unintentional communication is distinguished. Intentional communication is the kind of communication that is capable of generating and transmitting diverse, unconscious talker senses, perceived based on the communicative situation and verbal context. The following ontological features of unintentional communication are distinguished: purposefulness, multi-ethnicity, need, automation, rationalization, objectivity, explication, situationality, provocativeness and aesthetics.
Non-intentional communication is communication, during which the listener derives knowledge expressed in speech or implicitly, i.e. such knowledge is not represented in the values of the components of the external structure of the utterance, or is not perceived by the speaker, but arises in the mind of the recipient as a result of free association. Non-intentional communication is capable of generating and transmitting diverse unconscious talking senses, perceived based on the communicative situation and verbal context.
The types of communications as a social (humanitarian) technology in management are shown in fig. 6.1.
Fig. 6.1. Types of communications
The effectiveness of teamwork is influenced by the intracommunicative network model used in the organization.
Communication networks are divided into centralized (all communication is closed to the head) and decentralized (communication is relatively evenly distributed among all members of the organization). Centralized networks contribute to solving relatively simple management tasks, but they impede the effectiveness of solving complex problems, reduce job satisfaction for team members, and reduce team unity, although they contribute to the development of leadership.
There are many other variants of communication models: chain, star, hierarchical. The links between the transmitting side (switch - manager (P)) and the reproducing side (performer (I)) differ significantly (Fig. 6.2).
Fig. 6.2. Communication Structures
With the chained structure of communications, the decision passed from one end to the other becomes known to all performers and is discussed by all. All ties in such a structure are the same, and the team leadership style does not appear. Such a structure of relationships breaks down if the connection between the two participants of communication is broken.
The multi - tier structure of communication is the most common at the level of the primary team. Here all participants of communication are interconnected. This model is distinguished by sufficient stability and speed of information transfer. Pronounced relations of subordination and command.
In the stellar structure, a leader is pronounced, through which all information is transmitted, all connections are closed in him.
The hierarchical structure is again characterized by pronounced administrative-team relations. Intermediate stages are both subordinate and command.
Подход, базирующейся на построении команды, не является универсальной панацеей от всех организационных бед. Для него также характерны неизбежные противоречия и сложности в реализации. Выделяют следующие основные причины неэффективной коммуникации:
– недостаточное понимание руководителями важности коммуникаций;
– отсутствие у организации обратных связей;
– неблагоприятный психологический климат в команде. К неверному восприятию информации и ее умышленному искажению приводят недоброжелательные отношения между сотрудниками;
– личностные моменты: предвзятость отдельных работников по отношению к мнению окружающих, всевозможные стереотипы в сознании и поведении, отсутствие интереса к информации, нарушенное эмоциональное состояние и др.;
– отсутствие единого понимания используемых понятий и терминов, символов, т.е. наличие семантических барьеров коммуникативного взаимопонимания и взаимодействия;
– большое количество промежуточных звеньев в коммуникативной цени;
– недостаточная компетентность руководителя в управлении конфликтом в команде.
Далее необходимо остановиться на проблеме управления конфликтом в команде.
Созидательное управление конфликтом – инструмент, который мобилизует творческий потенциал, освобождает человека от имеющихся личностных ограничений и облегчает выбор оптимального варианта поведения. Профессиональные важные качества современного руководителя включают способность управлять конфликтными ситуациями в команде и во внешней среде.
Conflict management in a team is a set of necessary measures of influence on a person or a group in order to structure and constructively develop interpersonal interaction. Conflict management arises when there is a need for self-change, self-movement. One of the features of conflict management is the structuring of a specific situation.
The goal of conflict management is to change the content and intensity of conflict interaction, its scope for the effective resolution or resolution of the conflict. Conflict management - a targeted impact on the behavior of people in conflict situations; activities to prevent, resolve and resolve conflict conflicts, differences of individuals and social groups. By changing one element of a conflict situation, we can control the course of the conflict as a whole. Impact by modeling constructive conflict can be stimulating or prophylactic.
Conflict management in a broad sense is associated with manipulation and impact on the causes of conflict. Management in the narrow sense provides the resolution of the conflict or its episodes.
The essence of conflict management is to create conditions under the influence of which the creative abilities of the parties involved in the discussions are developed. At the same time, participants in debates do not go beyond certain limits, otherwise contradictions may escalate into a quarrel and its attendant insults. It is necessary to build such personal and business relationships in the upcoming situation that will mitigate possible complications for both parties. It also means that it is necessary in this way to design the process of interaction in order to separate the substance of the case from the relationship of the partners and thus avoid the negative subjective influence on the solution of the problem.
The main indicator of readiness for conflict management is the successful performance of the following conflict management functions.
1. The transformation of conflict into new opportunities.
2. Accelerated progress in understanding each other.
3. Promoting personal growth (the development of self-analysis and self-knowledge).
4. Clearing the relationship from eroding interference.
5. Stabilization and improvement of contacts of communication partners.
6. Ensuring a constructive release of negative emotions, which contributes to their transition to positive ones.
7. Emotional reparation to those who listened to the one who spoke about the conflict.
Consideration of the principles of conflict management contributes to a more flexible behavior in a conflict interaction. In some situations, it is advisable to control by weak signals: when something can happen. And in others - management is carried out taking into account fixed points, i.e. on control points. The principles of conflict management include:
- the principle of an authoritative third for both conflicting parties;
- the principle of the outcrop of aggression;
- the principle of compulsory hearing of the interlocutor;
- the principle of substitution of positions.
Conflict management strategies are definitely related to these principles.
The conflict management strategy is based on the following principles:
- the principle of advanced, preventive effects;
- the principle of reasonable sufficiency in responding to a conflict problem;
- the principle of non-linear optimization of social interaction implies an indirect impact on participants in a conflict situation;
- the principle of constructive dominant in the conditions of conflict interaction.
The process of conflict management consists of a series of continuous, interrelated actions, including:
- goal-setting (including the adoption and implementation of decisions);
- coordination of joint actions;
- monitoring compliance with the standards of command behavior and the implementation of decisions.
Conflict management sets the relationship of subordination (ordering from top to bottom), coordination (ordering horizontally), reordination (ordering from bottom to top). By changing one element of the conflict situation, we can control the course of the conflict as a whole. Impact by modeling constructive conflict can be stimulating or prophylactic. Conflict management in a broad sense is associated with manipulation and impact on the causes of conflict. Management in the narrow sense provides the resolution of the conflict or its episodes.
For conflict management, it is important to deliberately take into account the specifics of external and internal conditions.
Internal conditions for effective conflict management include:
- adequate reflection of the conflict provides an understanding of its essence;
- timely establishment of cause-effect relations in a conflict contributes to the awareness of the conflict by the participants themselves;
- trust in the supervisor on the part of subordinates, tactful nature of the intervention;
- consideration of features and, if necessary, correction of the social experience of the parties to the conflict;
- the ability to anticipate possible behaviors of the parties to the conflict.
The dynamics of self-regulation of creative processes consists in the arbitrary change of target standards. People with a high level of self-government always ask themselves the question: "How should I be in this situation, and how should I be like this?" Answering this question, they clarify the characteristics of a situation, identify the type of personality for a given situation, construct a mental image or a person’s representation, which is the best example of this type of personality.
Innovative intuition - the ability to quickly and accurately find a solution to the problem and orientation in new complex situations, as well as predicting the course of events.
External conditions are characterized by typical age-related social and psychological characteristics of the team; the structure and level of development of the group; the specifics of interpersonal relationships. The social environment, the administrative space can respond to the disturbances produced by the subjects, if only there is enough time and desire to achieve the goal. Creating the conditions necessary for the adoption of the points of view of their partners, involves constructing for participants in a conflict an interpersonal environment close to the natural life situations. A joint decision is not just the sum of the thinking processes of the team members, since under the conditions of communication the individual process undergoes qualitative changes. A new responsible role falls to the head: he has to become the organizer of that social environment, which is an educational factor.
Given the established conditions, the manager has the opportunity to consider himself as one of the causes of the crisis and to be psychologically prepared to change himself. The formation of an orientation towards active interaction with the social environment is the most important condition for effective managerial intervention in a conflict. A significant role is played by the position of the head in relation to the conflict, preparedness for its solution. Psychological management of conflict interaction has the following directions.
1. Purposeful creation of conditions for effective communication in a team.
2. Correction of communication in a team.
3. Preparing for productive communication includes the ability to make demands.
The conflict management procedure. Direct work on conflict management includes:
1. Analysis of the causes of the conflict (with their division into those that can be changed, and those that cannot be changed).
2. Knowledge of the stages, phases and levels of conflict.
3. Consideration of the features of the techniques and methods of work that can be used in accordance with each stage and the established characteristics of the conflict, as well as their skillful use. A method of strengthening and deepening contradictions in relations turns out to be useful, allowing to bring these contradictions to a paradox, thanks to which the judgment “or-or” is no longer indisputable.
4. The ability to highlight the individual characteristics of the parties to the conflict.
Thus, an analysis of the conflict management procedure shows that management is an activity on an activity. The control action occurs when the content prevails over the form.
Conflict management action structure.
1. Planning a situation or a chain of situations that can lead opponents to the necessary conclusion.
2. Organization of situations, their instrumentation, taking into account the general tasks and content of the activities of this team.
3. Tactful management of the actions of opponents in the course of this situation, careful summing them to the desired conclusions.
4. The choice of the situation, indicating that the opinion of the team has already matured, help the team in its practical implementation.
Indirect methods of conflict resolution are methods that have the character of indirect effects. These methods give impetus to the improvement of conflict competence.
1. The method of "feeling out" - the opponent is given the opportunity to express everything that he has become painful and thereby reduces the emotional and psychological tension provoked by the conflict.
2. The method of "positive attitude to the individual." Conflicting, right or wrong, always a sufferer. We must express our sympathy to him and give a positive description of his personal qualities. In an effort to justify a positive assessment, voiced in his address, the opponent will seek to find a constructive method for resolving the conflict.
3. Method of intervention "authoritative third." In such a situation, it is necessary to attract a “third” who enjoys confidence. Thus, the conflicting party will know that his opponent is not such a bad opinion of him, and this fact can be the beginning of the search for a compromise.
4. Reception "naked aggression". In the form of a game in the presence of a third person, opponents are given to speak out about the sore. In such circumstances, the quarrel, as a rule, does not reach extreme forms, and the tension in the relations of the opponents decreases.
5. Exchange of positions. Conflicting offer to make claims from the standpoint of his opponent. This technique allows them to go beyond their personal grievances, goals and interests, and better understand others about their opponent.
6. Purposeful construction of images of memory and imagination:
1) update distress experience;
2) non-negotiation, failure to denoting the characteristics of the situation;
3) excessive uncertainty.
Thus, conflict management is an activity contributing to the crisis-free development of the conflict. A crisis in a conflict — a period of delay in the process of conflicting interaction of subjects (a pseudophase arising within one of the three phases of the conflict) —an interaction of team members in which there is no progressive transition from phase to phase (for example, a long delay in one phase, destructive loops stagnation or even return to the previous phase).
Часть 1 6. WORKING GROUPS AND TEAMS IN ORGANIZATIONS
Часть 2 Role distribution in the team - 6. WORKING GROUPS AND
Часть 3 Teamwork communication - 6. WORKING GROUPS AND TEAMS IN ORGANIZATIONS
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Organizational psychology
Terms: Organizational psychology