Lecture
Plan
one.
In recent decades, a lot of research has been carried out in the field of the theory of object relations, and it may appear that the concept of object relations has a less ancient history than it actually is. The object appears even in Freud, when he describes it as a means to satisfy the instincts. He speaks of object relations, first of all, in connection with the manifestation of drives and does not separate one from the other.
Melanie Klein was one of those who were at the forefront of the theory of object relations. Her theory has largely arisen from the observations of her own children and from the analysis of other children, many of whom were, in her opinion, psychotic. In her works, she demonstrated the importance of early pre-oedipal relations in the development and manifestation of psychopathology, thereby challenging the Freudian emphasis on the Oedipal complex. Her theory is mainly based on Freud's traumatic and topographic models, that is, she adheres to an extended interpretation of the death instinct theory and develops her own complex terminology. One of the basic tenets of her theory is the conflict that emanates from the initial struggle between the instincts of life and death (1948). This conflict is innate and manifests itself from the moment of birth. Indeed, birth itself is a crushing trauma that gives rise to ever-accompanying anxiety in relations with the outside world. The first object of the child, initially present in his mind is separated from the "I", according to Klein, is the mother's breast, which, because of the accompanying anxiety, is perceived as a hostile object. Klein, in her writings, emphasizes the paramount importance of attraction, which are object relationships (Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983, p. 146).
Klein argues that the functions of the ego, the unconscious fantasy, the ability to form object relations, the experience of anxiety, the use of protective mechanisms, are all available to the child from birth. She views fantasy as a mental representation of instinct. Thus, it turns out that any instinctive impulse has a corresponding fantasy. This means that any instinctive impulses are experienced only through fantasy, and the function of fantasy is to maintain the instinctive impulses.
Since the child constantly perceives the mother from a new position or in another way, Klein uses the word position to describe what analysts who do not share her views are called the stage of development (1935). She introduces the term projective identification in the context of a child’s actions in relation to himself and in relation to his mother (1946). In fantasies, the hated and threatening part of itself is split (in addition to the earlier splitting of objects) and projected onto the mother in order to damage the object and take possession of it. Hatred, previously directed at a part of itself, is now directed at the mother. “This process leads to partial identification, which establishes a prototype of aggressive object relations. To describe these processes, I propose the term projective identification.
Fear in the first three months is characterized by the threat of invading a bad pursuing object inside the Ego, destruction of the inner ideal breast and destruction of one’s own self. Associated with this is the role of envy, which also exists in a child from birth. Since the ideal breast is now accepted as a source of love and kindness, the Ego tries to match this. If this is not possible, the Ego should strive to attack and destroy a good chest in order to get rid of the source of envy. The child tries to break down the painful affect, and, if this defense is successful, gratitude, introjected into the ideal breast, enriches and strengthens the ego (Klein, 1957).
If development is progressing favorably and, in particular, identification with a good breast occurs, the child becomes more tolerant of the death instinct and less and less often resorts to splitting and projection, at the same time reducing paranoid feelings and moving on to further ego-integration. The good and bad aspects of objects begin to integrate, and the child perceives the mother at the same time as the source and recipient of bad and good feelings. At the age of about three months, the child passes the depressive position (Klein 1935, 1946, 1952a, 1932b). Now his main anxiety is associated with the fear that he will destroy or damage the object of his love. As a result, he begins to look for an opportunity to introject the mother orally, that is, to internalize it, as if to protect her from her destructiveness. Oral omnipotence, however, leads to the fear that a good external and internal object can in some way be absorbed and destroyed and, thus, even attempts to preserve the object are experienced as destructive. In fantasy, pieces of a dead, absorbed mother lie inside the child. This phase is characterized by depressive feelings of fear and hopelessness. Obviously, this occurs under the influence of powerful tendencies, such as the consolidation of the structures of the Superego, the desire to compensate for the depressive position, so that, in fantasy, thus restore the mother (Klein, 1940).
Klein’s theory is more topographical than structural (that is, based on Freud’s later theory), so its concepts are not related to ego-functioning, as we see it. For example, the Ego in Klein's understanding is closer to the "I", in which there are no self-regulatory functions, indicated by Freud in his structural model. Further, fantasy, in its understanding, "is a direct expression of attraction, and not a compromise between impulses and protective mechanisms, which follow from ego-functioning, corresponding to reality." Her conviction that the fantasy is available to the child from birth does not correspond to the data of cognitive psychology and neurodisciplines. Anxiety for her is a constantly threatening traumatic influence, crushing the Ego and not carrying a signaling function, as Freud suggested in his structural theory of anxiety (1926). Although Klein described a wide range of defense mechanisms, the predominance of “good” experience over the “bad” is more important in her theory for maintaining internal harmony than the use of effective defense mechanisms, as understood in structural theory.
According to Klein, the main conflict inherent in birth occurs between two innate drives, and not between different mental structures, and this is not related to ego-functioning. Accordingly, the interpretation of unconscious aggressive and sexual impulses vis-a-vis with an object is central to the practice of Klein. Moreover, according to her views, a conflict exists between two specific innate impulses, and, except in its form, it is unlikely to depend on the conditions of subsequent development. That is, the influence of the environment and individual experience are of little importance for development; her view of development is very different from ours. As Suerland expressed it: “To most analysts, it seems that it minimizes the role of external objects, almost asserting that fantasy is produced from the inside using impulse activity. Thus, it came to the theory of biological solipsism rather than a clearly defined theory of the evolution of structures based on the experience of object relations "(1980, p. 831). In the end, although Klein's theory is usually called the theory of object relations, for her the significance of an object is secondary compared to the significance of drives. Very little space in her theory is given to the manifestation of the real qualities of the object and its role in the development of the child.
Kohut (1971, 1977) says that just as physiological survival requires a certain physical environment containing oxygen, food and a minimum of necessary heat, mental survival requires certain psychological environmental factors, including susceptible, empathic self-objects (Kohut’s psychology gave birth to a number of new terms, the i-object is a specific person in a close environment, performing certain functions for the personality, due to which the personality is experienced as one thing. "It is in the matrix of the i-object what happens A specific structural process of transformative internalization is created in which the core of a child’s personality is formed. “According to Kohut’s personality psychology, building a higher-order personality — the ideal outcome of the development process — is formed on the basis of favorable relations between a child and his I-objects and is formed by three main components: basic aspirations to power and success, basic idealized goals, basic talents and abilities. Higher-order personality construction occurs due to emphatic reactions of the “mirroring” I-object, which encourage the infant to feel his greatness, to show himself and feel his perfection, and also allow him to form an internalized parental image with which he wants to merge.
Subsequently, minor, non-traumatic errors that the “mirroring” idealized self-object makes in its response result in the personality and its functions gradually replacing the self-object with its functions.
However, the traumatic defects of an I-object, such as a gross lack of empathy, leading to the fact that the mother or another I-object does not perform the mirroring function, causes various personality defects. For example, the inability to mirroring due to weak empathy destroys the infant’s satisfaction with its archaic self, leads to the introjection of the defective parent image and the development of a fragmented personality. The trauma inflicted on his narcissism provokes narcissistic anger and engenders fantasies of omnipotence, with the result that normal narcissism in infancy, instead of gradually diminishing, will increase, compensating for the deficiency of the i-object. Kohut argues that only after the elimination of the personality defect can a structural conflict of the oedipal phase occur.
Kohut exaggerates the pathogenic influence of parents, considering that their pathogenic personalities and the pathogenic properties of the environment explain pathological developmental disabilities. The approach resembles Freud's early traumatic affect model, according to which adult psychopathology was regarded as the result of seduction in childhood. Freud quickly realized that the sexual and aggressive impulses that arise in the child’s psyche also contribute to conflict. According to Kohut, “when I have no support, experiences of instinctual impulses arise as a product of disintegration,” as if a child is a helpless, passive victim of forces acting from without. Such a view clearly contradicts the concept of a developmental process in which the inner potential and activity of the infant form a personality on a par with the environment.
Moreover, according to Kohut, the pathology of the individual does not allow one to go over to Oedipal desires and conflicts. That is, developmental pathology in about This system is stopped in other systems, an idea that is not supported by clinical experience. The problems of narcissism, self-esteem, the functioning of the ego may give originality to the pre-oedipal desires and the Oedipal complex, as well as their resolution, but they do not stop the development process. Finally, as we mentioned earlier, there are doubts about retrospective theories of development, built on generalized hypotheses about children's sources of adult psychopathology. However, we owe Kohut an emphasis on the need for empathy (the way to know another person) in the mother-child relationship and in the analytic relationship.
Kernberg dealt primarily with the integration of psychoanalytic theories. Over the years, he assimilated a number of ideas and hypotheses about mental development proposed by Klein, the British school, Mahler and others, connecting them with Jacobson's theories into what he called ego-psychology - essentially, the theory of object relations with wide applications to nosology , evaluation, diagnosis and technology.
Kernberg suggests the theory that affects are the main motivational system of the infant; they organize themselves into libidinal and aggressive drives with the help of direct interaction with a human object, which is more than just a means of instinctive satisfaction. Id, Ego and Superego are formed on the basis of representations of the self and the object internalized under the influence of various affective states. These states color or define the characteristics of what is internalized — for example, whether the Superego will be harsh and tough or whether the Ego will cope with the tasks that it will have to solve.
In our opinion, Kernberg’s ideas about early development reflect a retrospective, adult-induced bias — they are based on a reconstruction made during the treatment of seriously ill adults, and are not sufficient to explain a wide range of possible experiences and development outcomes. For example, his approach does little to explain the effect on the child’s development of the nature of the actual experience as opposed to the power of introjections and fantasies; it also gives some insight into the various effects of a mother’s response to the needs of a growing child or the different consequences of developing the same hard experience for different children. On the other hand, Kernberg clarified the influence of youthful lovers on development, and also made bold and nontrivial efforts to integrate and systematize the central aspects of theories of development belonging to several authoritative sources. In the course of this work, he eliminated the many meanings of many points and created a system useful to therapists for the treatment of adult patients with serious mental disorders.
Mahler and her colleagues studied normal babies and normal mothers in the natural setting of the game room, observing the emergence of object relations in the first three years of life. Like Spitz, Mahler was particularly interested in the process of the formation of intrapsychic structures in the context of normal mother-infant relationships. She took up this research after working with babies and young children with profound mental disorders; therefore, studying normal children, she sought to uncover, on the one hand, which contributes to the formation of intrapsychic structures that ultimately allow the child to function independently of the object, on the other hand, which contributes to the pathology of these structures. Influenced by the work of Hartmann and Jacobson, Mahler believed that the resulting mental representations of the “I” and the object are basic to the formation and functioning of the Ego and Superego. She believed that, although a very small child could recognize various aspects of the external world, only gradually he becomes able to form a holistic mental representation of the mother, as well as a unique, stable and mentally represented image of himself, distinct from his primary love object. Mahler hypothetically suggested that these mental representations of the self and the object are built gradually as relations with objects develop, and set itself the task of determining the nature of the stages of this development.
The data obtained from the study led Mahler and her colleagues to consider the stages of development in terms of what she called the separation-individuation process. In this process, which became the foundation of the theory of the development of object relations of Mahler, two different, but intertwined lines are distinguished. Separation is the process by which the infant gradually forms an intrapsychic representation of itself, distinct and separated from the representation of its mother; it is not the physical, spatial distance from the parent or the disintegration of interpersonal relations that is meant, but the development of an intrapsychic feeling of being able to function independently of the mother. Individuation means an infant's attempt to build its unique identity, to perceive its own individual characteristics. Optimally, separation and individuation go together, but can also diverge as a result of a delay or accelerated development of one or another aspect of development.
Mahler believed that the separation-individuation process begins at the age of four to five months and includes four predictable, observable, and overlapping phases: differentiation, practice, reunion, and the formation of object constancy. In addition, Mahler identified two more phases preceding the beginning of the separation-individuation process: the “normal autistic phase”, which takes the first four weeks, and the “normal symbiotic phase,” lasting from the second month to four or five.
In connection with the process of separation-individuation, Mahler described the evolution of the infantile experiences of omnipotence and the accompanying self-grandeur feelings that underlie the normal development of self-esteem, as well as certain pathologies of a later age.
She particularly highlighted the growth of mental systems associated with the evolution of interpersonal relationships, pointing out the important role of conflict, first interpersonal, and ultimately intrapsychic. She described the factors of maternal-infant relationships, which ultimately contribute to the achievement of consistency of the libido object, in which comfort and comfort, originally emanating from the mother, become intrapsychically accessible. She believed that the establishment of the constancy of the libido object promotes the independent functioning of the Ego. Mahler also described how the pathologies of the functioning of the ego can lead to a violation of the relationship between mother and baby. The constant problem of psychoanalytic theory is the search for concepts and terms that adequately describe processes that are not objectivable and not quantifiable, but only indirectly deducible.Therefore, psychoanalytic theories often use metaphors that, unfortunately, are then taken literally. As a result, as new knowledge emerges, old metaphors lose their usefulness; they, and with them the concept, begin to be perceived as inferior. An example is the concept of Freud's psychic energy. The idea of energies seeking to defuse is no longer accepted, but in the clinic we can still observe differences in the intensity of emotions or in the intensities of impulses and aspirations for satisfaction.The idea of energies seeking to defuse is no longer accepted, but in the clinic we can still observe differences in the intensity of emotions or in the intensities of impulses and aspirations for satisfaction.The idea of energies seeking to defuse is no longer accepted, but in the clinic we can still observe differences in the intensity of emotions or in the intensities of impulses and aspirations for satisfaction.
The same thing happened with the terminology of Mahler, especially with those terms that she used to describe the first months of life. One cannot but agree that the metaphors originating from pathology and retrospection, such as “autism”, “symbiosis”, “barrier against stimuli”, “illusory common boundaries” and “hallucinatory, somatopsychic, based on omnipotence, merging” are rather doubtful.
The credibility of the research Mahler has been criticized. Brodie saw errors in the methods of her research and fraud in the results and believed that she was inclined to give hypotheses for final conclusions. It was deserved to dispute the idea of Mahler that the infant begins life in an autistic state, cut off from the world by the barrier of stimuli, like a chicken in an eggshell without perceiving social stimuli. Mahler herself tried to correct this idea, suggesting that “awakening” or “semi-autism” would be more appropriate words. Stern also disputes the opinion of Mahler that the ego and the object are not differentiated at birth, referring to research data representing abundant arguments that the infant distinguishes between the inner and the outer, himself and the other, from birth.Such criticism indicates a fundamental misunderstanding between many childhood researchers and psychoanalysts. Psychoanalysts are interested in the formation of intrapsychic structures.
The pre-adaptive state at the moment of birth is obvious, but there is no evidence that psychological structures are already functioning at birth, allowing us to form and maintain intrapsychic representations of ourselves and others.
Stern also criticized the separation of individuation of Mahler. The Mahler describes, and implies, the destruction of interpersonal object connections. In our opinion, Mahler is able to function independently and interdependently.There are interdisciplinary effects.
Modern transactional analysis includes the theory of personality, communication theory, analysis of complex systems and organizations, the theory of child development. In practical application, it is a system for correcting both individuals and couples, families, and various groups.
The structure of personality, according to Bern, is characterized by the presence of three states of “I” or “ego states”: “Parent”, “Child”, “Adult”.
“Parent” is an “ego state” with internalized rational norms of duties, requirements and prohibitions. “Parent” is information received in childhood from parents and other authoritative persons: rules of conduct, social norms, prohibitions, norms of how one can or should behave in a given situation. There are two main parental influences on a person: a direct one, which is held under the motto: “Do as I do!” And an indirect one, which is realized under the motto; "Do not how I do, but how I command to do it!"
A “parent” can be controlling (bans, sanctions) and caring (advice, support, custody). For the "Parent" characteristic statements of the type: "You can"; "Must"; "Never"; "So, remember"; "What nonsense"; "Poor thing" ...
In those conditions when the “parental” state is completely blocked and not functioning, a person loses ethics, moral principles and principles.
“Child” is an emotive principle in man, which manifests itself in two forms:
"Natural child" - implies all the impulses
inherent in the child: gullibility, spontaneity, enthusiasm, ingenuity; gives a person charm and warmth. But at the same time he is capricious, touchy, frivolous, self-centered, stubborn and aggressive,
“Adapted child” - implies behavior that meets the expectations and requirements of parents. For the "adapted child" is characterized by increased conformity, uncertainty, timidity, modesty. A variation of the “adapted child” is the “child” that rebels against the parents.
For the "Child" is characterized by statements like: "I want"; "I'm afraid"; "I hate"; "What do I care."
An adult “I-am state” is a person’s ability to objectively evaluate reality based on information obtained as a result of his own experience and on the basis of this to make independent, adequate situations, decisions. An adult state can develop throughout a person’s life. The “Adult” dictionary is built without prejudice to reality and consists of “concepts with which you can objectively measure, evaluate * and express objective and subjective reality. A person with the predominant state of“ Adult ”is rational, objective, capable of performing the most adaptive behavior.
If the “Adult” state is blocked and not functioning, then such a person lives in the past, he is not able to realize the changing world and his behavior fluctuates between the behavior of “Child” and “Parent”.
If “Parent” is a taught concept of life, • “Child” is a concept of life through feelings, then “Adult” is a concept of life through thinking, based on the collection and processing of information. “Adult” in Bern plays the role of arbiter between “Parent” and “Child”. He analyzes the information recorded in “Parent” and “Child”, and chooses which behavior is most appropriate for these circumstances, which stereotypes should be discarded, and which should be included. Therefore, the correction should be aimed at developing a permanent adult behavior, its goal: "Be always an adult!".
For Bern is characterized by a special terminology, which refers to events occurring between people in communication.
A “game” is a fixed and unconscious stereotype of behavior in which a person seeks to avoid intimacy (that is, full contact) by manipulative behavior. Intimacy is free from gambling, a sincere exchange of feelings, without exploitation, precluding gain. Under the games refers to a long series of actions containing weakness, trap, response, hit. pay, reward. Each action is accompanied by certain feelings. For the sake of receiving feelings often the actions of the game are performed. Each action of the game is accompanied by stroking, which at the beginning of the game is more than strikes. The further the game unfolds, the more intense the strokes and blows become, reaching a maximum at the end of the game.
There are three degrees of games: games of the 1st degree are accepted in society, they do not hide and do not lead to serious consequences; 2nd degree games are hidden, not welcomed by society and lead to damage that cannot be called irreparable; 3rd degree games are hidden, condemned, lead to irreparable damage to the loser. Games can be played by a person with himself, often two players (each player can play several roles), and sometimes the player arranges a game with the organization.
A psychological game is a series of consecutive transactions with a clearly defined and predictable outcome, with hidden motivation. The win is a certain emotional state, to which the player unconsciously seeks.
“Stroking” and “strokes” are interactions aimed at transmitting positive or negative feelings. Strokes can be: positive: "You are cute to me", "What are you"; and negative: “You dislike me”, “You look bad today”; conditional (concerned with what a person does and emphasize the result): “You did it well,” “I would have liked you more if ...”; unconditional (associated with who the person is); “You are a specialist of the highest class”, “I accept you as you are”; fake (outwardly they look like positive, but in fact turn out to be blows): “You, of course
well, it is clear that I tell you: I say, although you make an impression of a close person ”,“ This costume suits you very much, usually the costumes hang on your bag. ”
Any interaction of people contains strokes and blows, they constitute a bank of strokes and blows of a person, which largely determines self-esteem and self-esteem. Every person needs strokes, especially the need for adolescents, children and the elderly. The less physical strokes a person receives, the more he is adjusted to psychological strokes, which become more differentiated and sophisticated with age. Strokes and strokes are inversely related; the more a person takes a positive stroking, the less he gives; and the more a person takes beats, the less he gives strokes.
"Transaction" - all interactions with other people
from the standpoint of one or another role: “Adult”, “Parent”,
"Child." There are additional, cross and hidden transactions. Additional transactions are called
meeting the expectations of interacting people and
responsive to healthy human relationships. ”Such interactions are non-conflicting and can last indefinitely. Cross-transactions begin with recriminations, caustic replicas and end with a door slamming. In this case, the stimulus is given a reaction that activates inappropriate "ego-state".
Hidden transactions include more than two “ego states”, the message in them is disguised as a socially acceptable stimulus, but the response is expected from the side of the effect of the hidden message, which is the essence of psychological games.
“Extortion” is a way of behavior, with the help of which people realize their usual attitudes, evoking negative feelings in themselves, as if demanding by their behavior to be calmed. Extortion is usually what the initiator of the game gets at its end. For example, the client’s abundant complaints are aimed at receiving emotional and psychological support from others.
“Prohibitions and early decisions” is one of the key concepts, meaning a message transmitted in childhood from parents to children from the “ego state” “Child” in connection with anxieties, concerns and experiences of parents. These prohibitions can be compared with stable matrices of behavior. In response to these messages, the child makes what is called “early decisions”, i.e. formulas of behavior arising from prohibitions. For example, "Do not hang out, you have to be inconspicuous, otherwise it will be bad." - "And I will stick out."
“Life scenario” is a life plan, reminiscent of a performance that a person has to play. It includes:
«Я благополучен — ты благополучен».
«Я неблагополучен — ты неблагополучен».
«Я неблагополучен — ты благополучен».
«Я благополучен—ты неблагополучен».
«Я благополучен — ты благополучен» — это позиция
полного довольства и принятия других. Человек находит
себя и свое окружение благополучным. Эта позиция удачливой, здоровой личности. Такой человек поддерживает добрые отношения с окружающими, принят другими людьми, отзывчив, вызывает доверие, доверяет другим и уверен в себе. Такой человек умеет жить в изменяющемся мире, внутренне свободен, избегает конфликтов и не тратит время на борьбу с самим собой или с кем-то из окружающих. Человек с такой позицией считает, что жизнь каждого человека стоит того, чтобы жить и быть счастливым.
«Я неблагополучен — ты неблагополучен». Если человек
был окружен вниманием, теплом и заботой, а затем в силу каких-то жизненных обстоятельств отношение к нему радикально меняется, то он начинает ощущать себя неблагополучным. Окружение также воспринимается в негативном ключе.
Эта позиция безнадежного отчаяния, когда жизнь воспринимается бесполезной и полной разочарований. Такая позиция может складываться у ребенка, лишенного внимания, заброшенного, когда окружающие безразличны к нему, или у взрослого, который понес большую утрату и не располагает ресурсами для собственного восстановления, когда окружающие отвернулись от него и он лишен поддержки. Многие люди с установкой «Я неблагополучен — ты неблагополучен» проводят большую часть жизни в наркологических» психиатрических и соматических стационарах, в местах лишения свободы. Дня них типичны все нарушения здоровья, вызванные саморазрушающим поведением: непомерное курение, злоупотребление алкоголем и наркотическими веществами. Человек такой установкой считает, что и его жизнь и жизнь других людей вообще ничего не стоит.
«Я неблагополучен — ты благополучен». Человек с негативным образом собственного «Я» отягощен происходящими событиями и принимает на себя вину за них. Он недостаточно уверен в себе, не претендует на успех, низко оценивает свой труд, отказывается брать на себя инициативу и ответственность. Он ощущает себя полностью зависимым от
окружающих, которые представляются ему огромными, все сильными, благополучными фигурами. Человек с такой позицией считает, что его жизнь немногого стоит в отличие от жизни других, благополучных людей,
«Я благополучен — мы неблагополучен». Эта установка
надменного превосходства. Данная фиксированная эмоциональная установка может сформироваться как в раннем детстве, так и в более зрелом возрасте. Формирование установки в детстве может складываться по двум механизмам: в одном случае семья всячески подчеркивает превосходство
ребенка над другими ее членами и окружающими. Такой ребенок растет в атмосфере почитания, всепрощения и принижения окружающих. Другой механизм развития установки срабатывает, если ребенок постоянно пребывает в условиях, угрожающих его здоровью» или жизни (например, при плохом обращении с ребенком), и когда он восстанавливается после очередного унижения (или для того, чтобы просто выжить), он заключает «Я благополучен» — чтобы освободиться от своих обидчиков и тех, кто не защитил его: «Ты не благополучен». Человек с такой установкой считает
свою жизнь весьма ценной и не ценит жизнь другого человека.
Трансактный анализ включает:
В основе коррекционного взаимодействия лежит структурный анализ «эго-позиции», который предполагает демонстрацию взаимодействия с помощью техники ролевых игр.
Особо выделяются две проблемы: 1) контаминации, когда смешиваются два разных «эго-состояния», и 2) исключения, когда «эго-состояния» жестко отграничены друг от друга.
В трансактном анализе используется принцип открытой коммуникации. Это означает, что психолог и клиент разговаривают на простом языке, обычными словами (это значит, что клиент может читать литературу по трансактному анализу).
Главная цель — помощь клиенту в осознании своих игр, жизненного сценария, «эго-состояний» и при необходимости принятие новых решений, относящихся к поведению построения жизни. Сущность коррекции заключается в том, чтобы освободить человека от выполнения навязанных программ поведения и помочь ему стать независимым, спонтанным, способным, к полноценным отношениям и близости.
Целью также является достижение клиентом независимости и автономии, освобождение от принуждения, включенность в настоящие, свободные от игр взаимодействия, допускающие откровенность и близость.
Конечная цель — достижение автономии личности, определение своей собственной судьбы, принятие ответственности за свои поступки и чувства.
Позиция психолога. Основная задача психолога - обеспечить необходимый инсайт. А отсюда требование к его позиции: партнерство, принятие клиента, сочетание позиции учителя и эксперта. При этом психолог обращается к «эго-состоянию» «Взрослый» в клиенте, не потакает капризам «Ребенка» и не успокаивает разгневанного «Родителя» в клиенте.
Когда психолог использует излишне много терминологии, непонятной клиенту, считается, что этим он стремиться защититься от собственной неуверенности от проблем.
Требования и ожидания от клиента. Основным условием работы в трансактном анализе является заключение контракта. В контракте четко оговариваются: цели, которые клиент ставит перед собой; пути, по которым эти цели будут достигаться; предложения психолога по взаимодействию,; список требований к клиенту, который тот обязуется выполнять.
Клиент решает, какие убеждения, эмоции, стереотипы поведения он должен изменять в себе, чтобы достигнуть намеченных целей. После пересмотра ранних решений клиенты начинают думать, вести себя и чувствовать по-другому, стремясь приобрести автономию. Наличие контракта предполагает взаимную ответственность обеих сторон: психолога и клиента.
Техника семейного моделирования включает в себя элементы психодрамы и структурного анализа «эго-состояния». Участник группового взаимодействия воспроизводит свои трансакции с моделью своей семьи. Проводится анализ психологических игр и вымогательств клиента, анализ ритуалов, структурирование времени, анализ позиции в общении и, наконец, анализ сценария.
Трансактный анализ. Очень эффективен в групповой работе, предназначен для кратковременной психокоррекционной работы. Трансактный анализ предоставляет клиенту возможность выйти за рамки неосознаваемых схем и шаблонов поведения, и, приняв иную когнитивную структуру поведения, получить возможность произвольного свободного поведения.
Literature.
Main literature.
Additional literature.
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The basics of psychotherapy
Terms: The basics of psychotherapy