Social - Examples of Cognitive Biases and Cognitive Prejudices

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be overly optimistic about the usefulness of an invention or innovation for society, while often failing to identify its limitations and drawbacks.

Projection bias The tendency to overestimate how much our future selves share one's current preferences, thoughts and values, thus leading to sub-optimal choices. Proportionality bias Our innate tendency to assume that big events have big causes may also explain our tendency to accept conspiracy theories. Pseudocertainty effect Prospect theory The tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes. Recency illusion The illusion that a phenomenon one has noticed only recently is itself recent. Often used to refer to linguistic phenomena; the illusion that a word or a use of language that one has noticed only recently is an innovation when in fact it is long-established (the frequency illusion). Regressive bias A judgement that arises when objects of differentiated judgement are subject to nonequivalent regression effects. Restraint bias Egocentric bias The tendency to overestimate one's own ability to show restraint in the face of temptation. Rhyme as reason effect Truthiness Rhyming statements are perceived as more truthful. Risk compensation / Peltzman effect The tendency to take greater risks when perceived safety increases. Salience bias Availability bias The tendency to focus on items that are more prominent or emotionally striking and ignore those that are unremarkable, even though this difference is often irrelevant by objective standards. Scope neglect
or scope insensitivity Extension neglect The tendency to be insensitive to the size of a problem when evaluating it. For example, willingness to pay almost as much to save 2,000 children as to save 20,000 children. Selection bias Availability bias The tendency to notice something more when something makes us more aware of it, for example, when we buy a car, we tend to notice similar cars more often than before. They do not suddenly become more common — we simply notice them more. Also called observational selection bias. Selective perception Confirmation bias The tendency for expectations to affect perception. Semmelweis reflex Confirmation bias The tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts an established paradigm. Status quo bias Prospect theory The tendency for things to stay relatively the same (loss aversion, endowment effect, and system justification). Stereotyping False priors Expecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual. Subadditivity effect Logical fallacy The tendency to judge the probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts. Subjective validation Truthiness Perception that something is true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences. Surrogation Losing sight of the strategic construct that a measure is intended to represent, and subsequently acting as though the measure is the construct of interest. Survivorship bias Availability bias Concentrating on the people or things that “survived” some process and inadvertently overlooking those that did not because of their lack of visibility. System justification Prospect theory The tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged, sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest. (Status quo bias.) Time-saving bias Logical fallacy Underestimation of the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively low speed, and overestimation of the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively high speed. Parkinson's law of triviality The tendency to give disproportionate weight to trivial issues. This bias, also known as bikeshedding, explains why an organization may avoid specialized or complex subjects, such as the design of a nuclear reactor, and instead focus on something easy to grasp or relevant to a lay participant, such as the design of an adjacent bike shed. Unconscious bias Also known as implicit bias, these are underlying attitudes and stereotypes that people unconsciously attribute to another person or group of people, and which affect how they understand and interact with them. Many researchers suggest that unconscious bias occurs automatically, as the brain makes quick judgements based on past experiences and background. Unit bias The standard suggested quantity of food consumption (e.g. a serving size) is perceived as being appropriate, and a person will consume it in its entirety even if it is too much for that particular person. Weber–Fechner law The difficulty of comparing small differences in large quantities. Well travelled road effect Availability bias Underestimating the duration taken to traverse often-travelled routes and overestimating the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes. Women are wonderful effect The tendency to associate more positive qualities with women than with men. Zero-risk bias Extension neglect Preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk. Zero-sum bias Logical fallacy A bias in which a situation is incorrectly perceived to be a zero-sum game (i.e. one person gains at the expense of another).

Social

Name	Type	Description
Actor-observer bias	Attribution bias	The tendency, in explaining other people's behaviour, to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underestimate the influence of their situation (fundamental attribution error), and in explaining one's own behaviour, to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the influence of our situation and underestimate the influence of our own personality).
Authority bias	Association fallacy	The tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and to be more influenced by that opinion.
Availability cascade	Conformity bias	A self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or “repeat something long enough and it will become true”).
Bandwagon effect	Conformity bias	The tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. Related to groupthink and herd behaviour.
Ben Franklin effect	Cognitive dissonance	A person who has done someone a favour is more likely to do that person another favour than if they had received a favour from that person.
Bias blind spot	Egocentric bias	The tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in others than in oneself.
Cheerleader effect	Association fallacy	The tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation.
Politeness bias	Conformity bias	The tendency to voice an opinion that is more socially correct than one's true opinion, so as not to offend anyone.
Defensive attribution hypothesis	Egocentric bias	Attributing greater blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe, or as personal or situational similarity to the victim increases.
Egocentric bias	Egocentric bias	Occurs when people claim more responsibility for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would credit them with.
Extrinsic incentive bias	Attribution bias	An exception to the fundamental attribution error, when people view others as having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations for oneself.
False consensus effect	Egocentric bias	The tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.
False uniqueness bias	Egocentric bias	The tendency for people to see their projects and themselves as more unique than they actually are.
Fundamental attribution error	Attribution bias	The tendency for people to overemphasize personality-based explanations for behaviours observed in others, while underestimating the role and power of situational influences on the same behaviour (actor-observer bias, group attribution error, positivity effect, and negativity effect).
Group attribution error		The biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member reflect the group as a whole, or the tendency to assume that the outcomes of a group's decisions reflect the preferences of the group's members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.
Groupthink	Conformity bias	A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints, by actively suppressing dissent and isolating themselves from outside influence.
Halo effect	Association fallacy	The tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to “spill over” from one area of their personality to another in others' perceptions of them (physical attractiveness stereotype).
Hostile attribution bias	Attribution bias	The “hostile attribution bias” is the tendency to interpret others' behaviour as having hostile intent, even when the behaviour is ambiguous or benign.
Illusion of asymmetric insight	Egocentric bias	People perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them.
Illusion of transparency	Egocentric bias	The tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state is known by others, and to overestimate how well they understand others' personal mental states.
Illusory superiority	Egocentric bias	Overestimating one's desirable qualities and underestimating undesirable qualities, relative to other people. (Also known as the “Lake Wobegon effect”, the “above-average effect”, or the superiority bias.)
In-group bias	In-group bias	The tendency for people to favour others whom they perceive to be members of their own groups.
Intentionality bias	Attribution bias	The tendency to regard human actions as intentional rather than accidental.
Just-world hypothesis	Attribution bias	The tendency for people to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).
Moral luck	Attribution bias	The tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event.
Naive cynicism	Egocentric bias	Expecting greater egocentric bias in others than in oneself.
Naive realism	Egocentric bias	The belief that we see reality as it truly is — objectively and without bias; that facts are plain for everyone to see; that rational people will agree with us; and that those who do not are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or biased.
Not invented here	In-group bias	Aversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or knowledge developed outside a group. Related to the IKEA effect.
Out-group homogeneity bias	In-group bias	Individuals see members of their own group as relatively more varied than members of other groups.
Puritanical bias	Attribution bias	Refers to the tendency to attribute the cause of an undesirable outcome or wrongdoing by a person to a moral failing or lack of self-control, rather than considering the impact of broader social determinants.
Pygmalion effect		A phenomenon whereby other people's expectations of a target person affect that person's performance.
Reactance		The urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do, out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice (reverse psychology).
Reactive devaluation		Devaluing proposals only because they purportedly originated from an adversary.
Self-serving bias	Attribution bias	The tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than for failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests (group-serving bias).
Sexual overperception bias / sexual underperception bias	False priors	The tendency to overestimate/underestimate the sexual interest of another person in oneself.
Social comparison bias		The tendency, when making decisions, to favour potential candidates who do not compete with one's own particular strengths.
Social desirability bias	Conformity bias	The tendency to overestimate socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in oneself and underestimate socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours. (Politeness bias.)
Shared information bias		Known as the tendency for group members to spend more time and energy discussing information that all members are already familiar with (i.e. shared information), and less time and energy discussing information that only some members know (i.e. unshared information).
Trait ascription bias	Egocentric bias	The tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behaviour, and mood, while viewing others as much more predictable.
Third-person effect	Egocentric bias	A perceived tendency to believe that mass-media messages have a greater effect on others than on oneself. As of 2020, the third-person effect has yet to be reliably demonstrated in a scientific context.
Ultimate attribution error	Attribution bias	Similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group rather than to individuals within the group.
Worse-than-average effect		The tendency to believe that we perform worse than others at difficult tasks.

Memory

In psychology and cognitive science, a memory bias is a cognitive bias that either enhances or impairs the recall of a memory (either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many types of memory bias, including:

Name	Description
Bizarreness effect	Bizarre material is better remembered than common material.
Choice-supportive bias	The tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were.
Conservatism or regressive bias	The tendency to remember high values and high probabilities/frequencies as lower than they actually were, and low ones as higher than they actually were. Based on the available data, memories are insufficient.
Consistency bias	Incorrectly remembering one's past attitudes and behaviour as resembling present attitudes and behaviour.
Context effect	Cognition and memory are context-dependent, so out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than memories that are in context (for example, the time and accuracy of recalling work-related memories will be lower at home, and vice versa) .
Cross-race effect	The tendency for people of one race to have difficulty identifying members of a race other than their own.
Cryptomnesia	A form of misattribution, in which a memory is mistaken for imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory.
Egocentric bias	Recalling the past in a self-serving manner, for example, remembering one's exam grades as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it actually was.
Fading affect bias	A bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more quickly than the emotion associated with positive events.
False memory	A form of misattribution, in which imagination is mistaken for a memory.
Generation effect (self-generation effect)	Self-generated information is remembered best. For example, people can better recall statements that they have generated than similar statements generated by others.
Google effect	The tendency to forget information that can be readily found online using search engines.
Humor effect	Humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones, which can be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive processing time required to understand humor, or the emotional arousal caused by humor.
Lag effect	The phenomenon whereby learning is increased when learning is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of time in a single session. ( spacing effect) .
Leveling and sharpening	Memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time, often coupled with a sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that take on an exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling. Both biases may be intensified with time, and also by repeated recall or retelling of the memory.
Levels-of-processing effect	That different methods of encoding information into memory have different levels of effectiveness.
List-length effect	A smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list, but as the length of the list increases, the absolute number of items remembered increases as well. For example, consider a list of 30 items (“L30”) and a list of 100 items (“L100”). A person may remember 15 items from L30, or 50%, whereas a person may remember 40 items from L100, or 40%. Although the percentage of items remembered from L30 (50%) is greater than the percentage from L100 (40%), more items from L100 (40) are remembered than items from L30 (15).
Misinformation effect	Memory becomes less accurate because of interference from post-event information .
Modality effect	Recall is higher for the last items on a list when the list items were received via speech than when they were received through writing.
Mood-congruent memory bias	The improved recall of information that is congruent with one's current mood.
Negativity bias	The psychological phenomenon by which people better remember unpleasant memories compared with positive ones. ( see also actor-observer bias , group attribution error , positivity effect and negativity effect ).
Next-in-line effect	When people take turns speaking in a group in a predetermined order (for example, going around the room clockwise, calling out numbers, etc.), people tend to poorly remember the words of the person who spoke immediately before them.
Part-list cueing effect	Displaying some of the items from a list and then retrieving one of them makes it harder to retrieve the other items.
Peak–end rule	People seem to perceive not the sum of an experience, but the average of how it was at its peak (for example, pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended.
Picture superiority effect	The notion that concepts learned by viewing pictures are more easily and frequently recalled than concepts that are learned by viewing their written word-form counterparts.
Positivity effect ( socioemotional selectivity theory )	Older people favor positive information in their memories.
Serial position effect	Items at the end of a sequence are the easiest to recall, followed by items at the beginning of a sequence; items in the middle are the least likely to be remembered.
Processing difficulty effect	Information that takes longer to read and requires more thought (is processed with greater difficulty) is easier to remember.
Reminiscence bump	The recollection of more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than personal events from other periods of life.
Self-relevance effect	Memories relating to the self are recalled better than similar information about others.
Source confusion	The mixing up of episodic memories with other information, distorting memories.
Spacing effect	This information is better remembered if exposure to it is repeated over a long period of time rather than a short one.
Spotlight effect	The tendency to overestimate how much other people notice your appearance or behaviour.
Stereotypical bias	Memories are distorted toward stereotypes (for example, racial or gender stereotypes).
Suffix effect	The diminishment of the recency effect because a spoken item is added to the list that does not need to be recalled.
Suggestibility	A form of misattribution in which ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for memory.
Tachypsychia	When the time perceived by a person either lengthens, making events appear to slow down, or shortens.
Telescoping effect	The tendency to displace recent events backward in time and distant events forward in time, so that recent events appear more remote, and distant events appear more recent.
Testing effect	The fact that it is easier to remember information you have read by writing it out again, rather than by re-reading it.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon	When a subject can recall parts of an item or related information but, frustratingly, cannot recall the whole item. This is thought to be an example of “blocking”, where several similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other.
Travis Syndrome	Overestimating the significance of the present. This is associated with chronological snobbery, and possibly with an appeal to the logical fallacy of novelty being part of the bias.
Verbatim effect	That the "gist" of what someone has said is better remembered than the verbatim wording. This is because memories are representations, not exact copies.
Von Restorff effect	That an item that stands out is more likely to be remembered than other items.
Zeigarnik effect	That unfinished or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.

Practical significance of confirmation bias: implications

Many social institutions rely on people to make rational judgements.

The regulatory regime for securities largely assumes that all investors act as perfectly rational people. In truth, real investors face cognitive limitations arising from biases, heuristics, and framing effects.

For example, a fair jury trial requires that jurors ignore irrelevant features of a case, properly weigh the relevant features, consider various possibilities open-mindedly, and resist fallacies such as the appeal to emotion . The various biases demonstrated in these psychological experiments suggest that people often fail to do all of this. However, they cannot do this systematically, deliberately, and predictably.

Cognitive biases are also linked to the persistence of thinking grounded in a theory of everything, to major social problems such as prejudice, and they also hinder the public's acceptance of counter-intuitive scientific knowledge.

However, in some academic disciplines the study of bias is very popular. For example, bias is a widespread and well-studied phenomenon, because most of the decisions that concern the minds and hearts of entrepreneurs are difficult to compute.

Cognitive biases can create other problems that arise in everyday life. One study found a link between cognitive bias, specifically approach bias, and the inhibitory control over how much unhealthy snack food a person will eat. They found that participants who ate more unhealthy snack food had less inhibitory control and relied more on approach bias. Others have also hypothesized that cognitive biases may be linked to various eating disorders and to how people see their body and their body image.

It has also been argued that cognitive biases can be used in destructive ways. Some believe that there are people in positions of authority who use cognitive biases and heuristics to manipulate others in order to achieve their own ends. Some medicines and other forms of treatment rely on cognitive biases to persuade others who are susceptible to cognitive biases to use their products. Many see this as an exploitation of the natural struggle of judgement and decision-making. They also believe that responsibility for regulating this misleading advertising falls to the government.

Cognitive biases also appear to play a role in the sale price and value of real estate. Participants in an experiment were shown a residential property. They were subsequently shown another property that was completely unrelated to the first. They were asked to say what they thought the value and sale price of the second property would be. They found that showing participants an unrelated property did indeed affect how they valued the second property.

Debiasing: cognitive bias mitigation and cognitive bias modification

Because they give rise to systematic errors , cognitive biases cannot be compensated for by applying the wisdom of crowds, which consists of averaging the answers from several people. Debiasing is the reduction of bias in judgement and decision-making through the use of incentives, nudges, and training. Cognitive bias mitigation and cognitive bias modification are forms of debiasing that apply specifically to cognitive biases and their effects. Reference class forecasting is a method for systematically de-biasing estimates and decisions, based on what Daniel Kahneman called the outside view .

Like Gigerenzer (1996), Haselton et al. (2005) state that the content and direction of cognitive biases are not “arbitrary” (p. 730). Moreover, cognitive biases can be controlled. One method of debiasing is aimed at reducing systematic errors by prompting people to use controlled processing as opposed to automatic processing. With regard to reducing the FAE , monetary incentives and informing participants that they would be held accountable for their attributions were both associated with an increase in accurate attribution. Training also reduces cognitive biases. Carey K. Morewedge and colleagues (2015) found that study participants who were exposed to one-shot training interventions, such as educational videos and debiasing games that taught mitigation strategies, showed a significant reduction in committing six cognitive biases immediately and up to 3 months later. .

Cognitive bias modification refers to the process of altering cognitive biases in healthy people, as well as to the growing field of psychological (non-pharmaceutical) treatments for anxiety, depression, and addiction known as cognitive bias modification therapy (CBMT). CBMT is a subgroup of therapies within the growing field of psychotherapy based on modifying cognitive processes with or without accompanying medication and talk therapy, sometimes called applied cognitive processing therapy (ACPT). Although cognitive bias modification can refer to changing cognitive processes in healthy people, CBMT is a growing field of evidence-based psychological therapy in which cognitive processes are modified to relieve the suffering of major depression , anxiety, and addiction. CBMT methods are technology-assisted treatments that are administered via computer, with or without the support of a clinician. CBM combines data and theory from the cognitive model of anxiety, cognitive neuroscience, and attentional models.

Cognitive bias modification has also been used to help those who suffer from obsessive-compulsive beliefs and obsessive-compulsive disorder. This therapy has been shown to reduce obsessive-compulsive beliefs and behaviour.

General theoretical causes of some cognitive biases

Bias arises from various processes that are sometimes difficult to distinguish. These include:

• Bounded rationality - limits on optimization and rationality
  • Prospect theory
  • Mental accounting
  • Adaptive bias - decision-making based on limited information, biased according to the cost of an error
• Attribute substitution - taking a complex and difficult judgement and subconsciously replacing it with an easier judgement
• Attribution theory
  • Salience
  • Naive realism
• Cognitive dissonance and related to it:
  • Impression management
  • Self-perception theory
• Fast means of processing information ( heuristics ), including:
  • Availability heuristic - estimating what is more likely based on what is more available in memory, which is biased toward vivid, unusual, or emotionally charged examples
  • Representativeness heuristic - estimating probabilities based on similarity
  • Affect heuristic - a decision is based on an emotional reaction rather than a calculation of risks and benefits
• Emotional and moral motives, arising, for example, from:
  • Two-factor theory of emotion
  • Somatic marker hypothesis
• Introspection illusion
• Misinterpretation or misuse of statistics ; innumeracy .
• Social influence
• The brain's limited capacity to process information
• Noisy information processing (distortions in the storage and retrieval of memory). For example, a 2012 article in the journal Psychological Bulletin suggests that at least eight seemingly unrelated biases can be caused by the same information-theoretic generative mechanism. The article shows that noisy deviations in memory-based information processes, which transform objective evidence (observations) into subjective estimates (decisions), can give rise to regressive conservatism , belief revision (Bayesian conservatism), illusory correlations , illusory superiority (better-than-average effect) and worse-than-average effect , subadditivity effect , exaggerated expectation , overconfidence , and the hard–easy effect .

Individual differences in cognitive biases

People do have stable individual differences in their susceptibility to errors in decision-making, such as overconfidence , temporal discounting , and bias blind spot . Nevertheless, these stable levels of bias within individuals can be changed. Participants in experiments who watched educational videos and played debiasing games showed a medium-to-large reduction, both immediately and up to three months later, in their susceptibility to six cognitive biases: anchoring , bias blind spot , confirmation bias , fundamental attribution error , projection bias , and representativeness .

Individual differences in cognitive bias have also been linked to differing levels of cognitive ability and function. The Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) has been used to help understand the relationship between cognitive biases and cognitive abilities. Using the cognitive reflection test to determine ability has produced inconclusive results. However, there does appear to be a correlation; those who score higher on the cognitive reflection test possess higher cognitive abilities and rational thinking skills. This, in turn, helps predict performance on cognitive bias and heuristic tests. Those with higher CRT scores tend to be able to answer various heuristic and cognitive tests and tasks more correctly.

Age is another individual difference that affects susceptibility to cognitive biases. Older people are more susceptible to cognitive biases and have less cognitive flexibility. Nevertheless, older people were able to reduce their predisposition to cognitive biases over the course of ongoing trials. In these experiments, both young and older people performed a framing task. Young people possessed greater cognitive flexibility than older people. Cognitive flexibility helps overcome pre-existing biases.

Criticism

Criticism of theories of cognitive bias is usually based on the fact that both sides of the debate often claim that the other's thoughts are subject to human nature and are the result of cognitive biases, while asserting that their own point of view stands above cognitive biases and is the correct way to “overcome” the problem. This split is connected to a more fundamental problem stemming from the lack of consensus in the field, thereby creating arguments that can be used, without being proven wrong, to support any conflicting point of view.

Gerd Gigerenzer is one of the leading opponents of the concept of cognitive biases and heuristics. Gigerenzer believes that cognitive biases are not biases at all, but rules of thumb, or as he put it, “intuitive feelings”, that can genuinely help us make the right decisions in our lives. His view casts a far more positive light on cognitive biases than many other researchers. Many view cognitive biases and heuristics as irrational ways of making decisions and judgements. Gigerenzer argues that the use of heuristics and cognitive biases is rational and useful for decision-making in everyday life.

See also

• [[b9583]]
• [[b12024]]
• [[b12023]]
• Logical fallacy
• List of classic experiments in psychology
• Asch conformity experiments
• Behavioral economics
• Defence mechanism
• Golem effect
• Affective forecasting - Predicting one's future emotions (affect)
• Anecdotal evidence - Evidence based on personal testimony
• Apophenia - The tendency to perceive connections between unrelated things.
• Attribution (psychology) - The process by which people explain the causes of behaviour and events.
• Black swan theory - A theory of the reaction to unexpected events
• Chronostasis - A distortion of time perception.
• Cognitive distortion - An exaggerated or irrational pattern of thought
• Defence mechanism - An unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli.
• Dysrationalia - The inability to think and behave rationally despite adequate intelligence.
• Fear, uncertainty, and doubt - A tactic used to influence opinion by spreading negative, dubious, or false information.
• Feedback - A process in which information about the current status is used to influence future status.
• Impostor syndrome - A psychological pattern of doubting one's accomplishments and fearing being exposed as a "fraud".
• List of common misconceptions - Wikipedia list article
• List of fallacies - Types of logically incorrect reasoning
• List of maladaptive schemas
• List of memory biases - Wikipedia list article
• List of psychological effects - Wikipedia list article
• iSheep # Behavioral patterns - a derogatory marketing term (referring to multiple cognitive biases)
• Media bias - A generalized analysis of various types of media bias.
• Mind projection fallacy - The informal fallacy that the way a person sees the world reflects the way the world actually is.
• Motivated reasoning - The use of emotionally biased reasoning to justify or make decisions.
• Observational error , also known as bias
• Outline of public relations - An overview of and topical guide to public relations
• Outline of thought - An overview of and topical guide to thought
• Pollyanna principle - The tendency for people to remember pleasant events more than unpleasant ones.
• Positive feedback - A destabilizing process that occurs within a feedback loop.
• Prevalence effect - A phenomenon whereby rarely occurring targets are easily missed.
• Propaganda - A form of communication aimed at influencing an audience by presenting only one side of an argument.
• Publication bias - The higher likelihood of publishing results indicating a significant finding.
• Recall bias - A systematic error caused by differences in the accuracy or completeness of recollections retrieved.
• Self-handicapping - A cognitive strategy by which people avoid effort in the hope of preventing potential failure from damaging their self-esteem.

Продолжение:

Часть 1 Examples of Cognitive Biases and Cognitive Prejudices
Часть 2 Social - Examples of Cognitive Biases and Cognitive Prejudices

See also

• Examples of Cognitive Biases and Cognitive Prejudices
• The primacy effect in political science and marketing
• Edge Effect (Memory) and the Recency Effect