Lecture
The use of power resources drives all its components in motion, makes its process a reality, which is characterized, above all, by means and methods of power.
The ways of government can be different: democratic (power is exercised with the participation of the executors of its decisions), authoritarian (one-man rule with limited control over subjects), totalitarian (all-round control of the subject over the object), constitutional (rule within the law), despotic (absolute power, arbitrariness and reliance on violence), liberal (respect for individual freedom, its fundamental rights) and others.
The process of rule is regulated and regulated by a special mechanism of power - a system of organizations and norms, their structure and activities. In relation to such a complex social subject, as a society (people), the mechanism of power is the state bodies, the law, the political system as a whole.
Features of various elements of power: subject, object, resources - can be used as the basis of its typology.
There are several classifications of power depending on what is considered the basis: the area of functioning of power, the volume of prerogatives, the subject of power, the regime of government, etc .:
One of the most meaningful classifications of power is its division according to the resources on which it is based, into economic, social, spiritual information, coercive (which is often called political in the narrow sense of the word, although this is not entirely accurate) and political in broad terms. , the proper meaning of the word.
Economic power is the control of economic resources, the ownership of various kinds of material values. In ordinary, relatively quiet periods of social development, economic power dominates other forms of power, since economic control is not just control over one of the areas of human life that are not related to the rest, it is control over the means to achieve our goals.
Social power is closely associated with economic power. If economic power involves the distribution of wealth, the social - the distribution of the position in the social structure, status, positions, benefits and privileges. Modern states with the help of social policy can influence the social status of wide sections of the population, thereby causing their loyalty and support. For many states today, there is a desire to divide, to the extent possible, economic and social authorities and to democratize social power.
With regard to the power in enterprises, this is manifested in depriving the owner of the right to accept and dismiss an employee, single-handedly determine his salary, raise or lower his position, change working conditions, etc. All these social issues are regulated by law and collective labor agreements and are resolved with the participation of trade unions, production councils, state and public employment agencies, the court and some other state and public institutions.
Spiritual and informational power is power over people, exercised through scientific knowledge and information. In modern society, without reliance on knowledge, power cannot be effective. Knowledge is used both to prepare government decisions and to directly influence people's minds to ensure their loyalty and government support. Such impact is carried out through the institutions of socialization (schools, institutions, educational societies, etc.), as well as through the media. Information power can serve different purposes: not only the dissemination of objective information about the activities of the government, the state of society, but also manipulation based on special methods of deception, management of people's consciousness and behavior against their interests, and often will.
Forced power is determined by the fact that it relies on power resources and means control over people with the help of physical strength. Forced power is often identified with political power . Of course, the legal use of force throughout society is one of the most important distinguishing features of political power. However, violence, physical coercion can also be used by non-political authorities, for example, in relations between slave owners and slaves, between a despot — the head of the family — and its members, between a leader and members of a criminal gang, etc.
Depending on the subjects, power is divided into:
It is possible to classify power according to the functions of its organs: for example, the legislative, executive and judicial powers of a state, according to the methods of influencing the subject and object of power: democratic, authoritarian, etc.
Particularly relevant is the problem of interaction between the authorities. Many consider economic power, the power of the owners of the means of production and other social wealth, to be the most important among all the authorities. In a market society, where almost everything has a price and monetary value, the vast majority of media belongs to large owners. Money has a strong influence on the conduct of election campaigns and election results, are widely used to bribe politicians. The concentration of economic power among large owners creates the danger of establishing a plutocracy — the direct political rule of a small group of rich. In modern Western democracies, the absolute power of big capital is constrained by competition between owners, the political influence of the middle class, the democratic state and the public.
Political power, experiencing a strong impact of economic power, is sufficiently independent and able to have primacy over it, to subordinate it to its goals. In certain conditions, the dominant influence on society may have information power. Its monopolization by a certain group can ensure its victory in elections and the long retention of its domination in society, despite the ineffectiveness of economic and other policies.
In the interaction of various authorities in society, the so-called cumulative effect takes place - the increasing accumulation of power. It is manifested in the fact that wealth increases the chances of entering the political elite and access to the media and education; high political position contributes to the accumulation of wealth, access to knowledge and informational influence; the latter, in turn, improve the ability to occupy a leading political position and increase income.
The separation of powers and the delimitation of their competences in different countries have their own specifics. However, a common rule for all democratic states is that the three branches of government should not be completely divided, or, conversely, united under one authority.
Therefore, within the framework of a single integrity of state power, it is necessary to separate the authorities so that each of them effectively exercise their powers and their unity in order to ensure the interests of the individual, the people, and the social progress of society.
The generalization of the facts, taking into account the available experience allows us to characterize the general purpose and place of each branch of government.
Legislative power is based on the principles of the constitution and the rule of law, is formed by free elections. The legislature amends the constitution, determines the basis of the state’s domestic and foreign policy, approves the state budget, adopts laws, controls their implementation. Laws are binding on all executive authorities and citizens. The rule of the legislature is limited by the principles of law, the constitution, and human rights. Legislative bodies are under the control of voters through a system of popular representation and free democratic elections, and in a system with other organs of the judiciary and the executive.
In democracies, the legislature acts as a carrier of parliament, the effectiveness of which depends largely on the structures tested by experience in state-building. Parliaments are bicameral and unicameral, often unicameral. In a number of countries, the so-called simple bicameral parliamentary system operates, in which one chamber is formed as a result of direct elections, and the other on the basis of territorial proportionality.
The executive and administrative power , in comparison with the legislative one, is distinguished by great dynamism and receptivity to public life. Executive power is exercised by the government, which solves many issues, including in the field of economic management, planning, culture, education, financing, ensuring everyday life and the needs of the population, etc. The peculiarity lies in the fact that the executive branch not only executes the laws, but also issues regulatory acts or comes up with a legislative initiative.
Another feature of this power is manifested in the fact that, with all the desire, its function cannot be contained even in such broad concepts as law enforcement and enforcement. In a rapidly changing environment, she must quickly take action at their discretion. Its distinctive feature is that it carries out its activities mainly "behind closed doors". By virtue of this circumstance, the executive branch inevitably subjugates both the legislature and the judiciary. To prevent this, we need special measures.
Executive power should be based on the law and work within the law. She has no right to appropriate powers and demand from citizens to perform any duties, if this is not provided for by law. Its containment is achieved through regular accountability and responsibility to the people's representation, which has the right to control the activities of the executive branch.
The judiciary includes institutions that represent the independent structure of a state organization. The state of the judiciary, attitudes towards it in society, the direction of its development have a significant impact on all aspects of society. Every person should have a firm belief that his appeal to the judiciary will be completed with a fair decision, for the protection of human rights and freedoms, the resolution of conflicts and disputes by civilized means is the rule of law. In principle, the court is not a repressive body, for it is intended to be a defender of the law, suppressing an offense.
The judiciary affects the legislative and executive. Legislative power is controlled through the court system (Supreme Court, Constitutional Court). So, with the help of the Constitutional Court in the country, the constitutionality of not only by-laws, but also of the laws themselves is ensured.
Legality (legitimacy) of power . Power is a legal concept, meaning the creation and distribution of values according to public interests. Power is the legal right to make decisions binding on citizens and to use coercion in the name of the triumph of laws. Rulers always seek to create the impression of the legitimacy of their power and the rule of law. In a society in which people respect the law and trust the government, minimum conditions for coercion are required. Where the legitimacy of power is not indisputable, lawlessness reigns and the danger of social upheaval persists.
The concept of legitimacy (legitimacy) of power is important for political stability and support of leaders. The legitimacy of power can be defined as the degree of natural recognition by the population of a country of the system to which it belongs. A state can be legitimate if citizens feel that it justifies their hopes. Legitimacy is associated with the presence of authority in power, with the faith of the overwhelming majority of the population that the existing order is best for a given country, with a consensus in the area of fundamental political values.
The term “legitimacy” itself is sometimes translated from French as “legality” or “legality”. Such a translation is not entirely accurate. Legality, understood as action through the law and in accordance with it, is reflected by the category "legality". “Legitimacy” and “legality” are close but not identical concepts. The first of them is evaluative, ethical and political in nature, the second is legal and ethically neutral. Any power, albeit unpopular, is legal. At the same time, it may be illegitimate, that is, not accepted by the people, issue laws at its discretion and use them as an instrument of organized violence. In a society there can be not only illegitimate, but also illegal power, for example, the power of mafia structures.
The objects of legitimacy are :
Sources of legitimacy are :
Indicators of legitimacy are :
Political relations at certain stages can lead to a crisis of legitimacy, the roots of which should be sought in the nature of changes in society. The crisis of legitimacy most often arises when the status of the main social institutions is in danger, when the progressive demands of the main groups of society are not perceived by the political system. A crisis may also arise in a renewed social structure if the system for a long time fails to meet the expectations of wide public circles.
To maintain the rule of law, various means and methods are used:
The functioning of political systems shows that they all face problems of law, the successful solution of which strengthens the viability of political institutions, ensures the stability and efficiency of their functioning. Obviously, some states disappeared from the political map of the world because they could not cope with the problems of legitimacy.
In recent years, the problem of legitimacy has become extremely relevant for most post-communist countries. The inability of the ruling regimes in them to lead countries out of crisis undermines public confidence in rational-legal ways of legitimization.
The value of legitimacy, Marx Weber noted, in guaranteeing the stability of society. Legitimacy consists in a long and unanimous agreement to accept the rule and authority of a given class, hierarchy, etc. Legitimacy is not imposed, it arises from the homogeneity of political attitudes, customs, traditions, economic system, the general spirit of this type of community. It should be noted that voluntarily, and especially consciously and unanimously adopted power - only one of the options for legitimization, and, moreover, is relatively rare. In modern societies, there are mainly two types of legitimacy: liberal-democratic and leader-plebiscitary. Democratic legitimacy is based on the primacy of human rights and freedoms, the election of central authorities, the constitutional limitations of the state’s activities, and the equal rights of all political forces operating under the constitution. Leader-plebiscite legitimacy is characteristic of authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. Чаще всего легитимность власти оспаривается, и ее легитимация, поиск специальных способов легитимировать власть, оправдать ее перед обществом или отдельным классом являются предметом особой заботы правящих сил. Ведь оценки действий властвующей группы могут стать важным аргументом в политической борьбе, формируют общественное мнение, политический климат, определяют поведенческую готовность масс. Так, Иранская революция предпочла законной власти шаха власть религиозного вождя. В странах СНГ бездействие ряда законов также объясняется не только отсутствием условий (рвущиеся экономические связи, некомпетентность исполнительной власти и т.д.), но и кризисом доверия народа к властным структурам на фоне неуклонного спада производства, снижения жизненного уровня населения, сложной общественно-политической обстановки, отсутствия точных прогнозов на ближайшее и отдаленное будущее.
Но история знает и другие примеры, когда вера в справедливость законов, доверие к политическим лидерам вызывало добровольную помощь власти со стороны народа. Например, переход к НЭПу можно считать скорее показателем доверия к политическому авторитету В.И. Ленина, чем выражением осознанной необходимости.
Способы властвования в различных странах разные, и зависят они от многих факторов. Процесс же властвования регулируется с помощью механизма, то есть государственных органов, права и политической системы в целом. Власть делится на виды в зависимости от основных сфер общественной жизни, от субъектов властвования и функций. Стабильность и прочность власти зависит от легитимности.
С точки зрения источника суверенитета, государственная власть может быть разделена на два основных типа: автократия и поликратия.
Под автократией следует понимать такую форму государственной власти, которая характеризуется неограниченным, бесконтрольным полновластием одного лица - главы государства, который является и источником, и выразителем суверенитета государственной власти. В таком государстве глава является также высшей законодательной, исполнительной и судебной властью. Население участия в формировании органов не принимает, а если и принимает в некоторых случаях, то в такой форме, что действительное его волеизъявление исключено. Для автократии характерна также жёсткая централизация власти, при которой местные органы - лишь исполнители воли высших органов. К автократиям следовало бы отнести древневосточные деспотии, Римскую империю периода доминанта, абсолютные феодальные монархии, Италию и Германию при фашистских режимах и т.д.
Поликратии принципиально отличаются от автократий тем, что источником суверенитета государственной власти в них признается население, фактически - господствующий класс. Выразитель суверенитета в поликратиях - это представительский орган, осуществляющий законодательную власть, а также в той или иной мере контролирующий деятельность других подсистем государственного механизма, прежде всего - исполнительную власть.
В зависимости от того, какая часть населения может выразить свою волю в определении деятельности государственной власти, поликратии могут быть разделены на:
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Political science
Terms: Political science