PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES

INTRODUCTION

Informatization and computerization in modern society are gaining more and more scope. Computers enter into new and new areas of human practice, transforming not only individual actions, but also human activity in general, influencing all mental processes. When a person interacts with new information technologies (computers, software, new types of media), the mediation of activity by new sign systems and tools occurs.

One of the important tenets of the cultural-historical theory of L.S. Vygotsky is the division of mental functions into natural and higher, which develop with the help of special psychological tools - signs when they are appropriated by man (Vygotsky, 1960). Following LS Vygotsky O.K. Tikhomirov writes about the transformation and complexity of the structure of higher mental functions - about the emergence of mental functions characterized by working not only with signs, but also with whole sign systems in the process of mastering and working with new information technologies.

OK. Tikhomirov and L.N. Babanin in the work "computers and new tasks of psychology" identified specific tasks that require the use of psychological knowledge. This is a psychological examination of artificial intelligence systems, and the improvement of models of the psyche, and the problem of developing interactive systems for organizing human-computer interaction. Based on the allocation of these tasks, we can talk about two sides in the psychological study of the interaction between man and the computer: on the one hand, it is necessary to study how to improve the work of the person with the computer and what problems arise at the same time, and on the other hand, it is important to investigate how the person himself is changing, having adapted to work in a new sign environment. The study of the psychological consequences of the use of information technology refers to the second circle of psychological problems in this area.

A large number of psychological studies were carried out within the framework of the issue of the development of new technologies by man. Thus, the phenomena of the need to “communicate” with a computer while the user is working and the characteristics of such communication, for example, the need for an anthropomorphic interface and emotionally colored vocabulary, the phenomenon of computer personification, as well as various forms of computer anxiety were studied. In later works on this topic, these phenomena were attributed to the manifestation of the subject's tendency to the unconscious assimilation of himself to the computer, comparison of the own intellectual abilities and capabilities of the system.

The second side of human-computer interaction - the problem of the psychological consequences of informatization deserves no less attention. So, one of the leading experts in the field of computer science, the author of the book "The Psychology of Programming" - B. Schneiderman raises the question of the responsibility of the creators of software for computers for the consequences of their use. In this case, B. Schneiderman cites the example of specialists - physicists, who were faced with the problem of responsibility for the consequences of the invention and the use of atomic energy. Indications on the negative consequences of the use of information technologies can be found in the letter of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation “On Information Culture”, which refers to the danger of autism of children and adolescents as a result of excessive enthusiasm for information technologies. However, this is not the only option of such a negative impact of computerization - there are quite a few such consequences of informatization.

In the psychological works devoted to the consequences of computerization, the subject of research is often the skills, concrete actions, and separate mental processes (studies by M. Cole, S. Peipert, O. T. Tikhomirov). At the same time, the problems of generalization, global personal change "is still not given enough attention." At the same time, issues related to this topic are studied mainly in theoretical terms, there are very few experimental studies. In our work, an attempt has been made to experimentally study one of the types of generalized, global personal changes occurring as a result of the application of information technologies.

Analysis of research in the field of psychological consequences of informatization

In the study of the psychological consequences of the use of information technology has accumulated quite extensive material. Such studies were conducted in the framework of the study of educational and professional activities. The subject of the study was also the individual skills, operations and mental processes.

In studies devoted directly to the psychological consequences of the computerization of labor activity, a thorough analysis of the positive and negative aspects of the motivational, goal-forming and operational components of such activity was carried out.

However, the use of information technology in specific actions or activities may have an impact on other activities, and even the whole person as a whole. The recently published work of A.E. Voyskunskogo and Yu. D. Babayeva "Psychological consequences of informatization". In it, the authors note that the impact of the processes of informatization on the activity can occur directly, through the transformation and mediation of the activity itself and the emergence of its new types associated with information technology, and indirectly, through multiple mediation of non-computerized activities. Such indirect multiple mediation can occur, for example, when watching movies created using computer graphics. In doing so, computerized activity may affect other activities in different ways. It is also characteristic that some transformations are superimposed on others, leading to both the neutralization of the psychological consequences of informatization and their increase. Spreading, global transformations of mental phenomena can lead to a change in the whole motivational and personal sphere of the subject, which can also be pronounced negative. Examples of such a negative personality change are: hobbies with computer games, the Internet, programming and information technology in general (so-called hacking).

All these types of hobbies with different phenomenology have similar psychological mechanisms and features. First, the same phenomenon can be observed in all of these activities: a special state of preoccupation with activity, called "flow experience". This particular kind of subjective experience has been described and continues to be studied by a group of American psychologists headed by M. Chikzentmiheili. In the domestic psychology in the framework of this direction a psychological study of computer games was conducted. The focus of the work of AG. Macalathia are special states of preoccupation with activity, in which the expected result of this activity "fades into the background in the mind of a person and very easily and accurately the flowing action completely takes attention." The flow experience has the following characteristics:

1. Task requirements are perceived as being relevant to skills;
2. The subject experiences a sense of control over his actions and environment;
3. The requirements for action are clear; there is fast feedback;
4. Concentration is achieved without subjective effort;
5. The subject has a sense of fusion of actions and their awareness; selflessness

The flow experience includes intense positive emotions and is of value to the subject who is experiencing it. Thanks to this, the activity in which the flow experience is present becomes intrinsically motivated. In the work of A.G. Makalatia was shown that the experiences received from computer games, according to all characteristics, correspond to the “stream experience”. Additional mechanisms were identified that ensure “sticking” during the game. It:

1. a peculiar phenomenon of "unfinished action" that does not allow the player to forget about the under-played game;
2. a mechanism that strongly resembles the neurotic mechanism of "escape", the desire of the player to forget for a while about the unpleasant reality.

In the case of such an “escape,” the intensity of the immediate enjoyment of the game decreases, and after it ends, fatigue, a sense of desolation, and irritation are observed.

Descriptions of this kind of involvement in the activities can be found in relation to other types of hobbies for information technology. So, you can find an indication that such a state is experienced by those who are interested in being on the Internet. Descriptions of the activities of programmers, for example, are the following: "there is something intoxicating that the whole system can be started up thanks to the order I gave" (Dolnykova, Chudova, 1997) are similar to the "sense of power and competence" that is felt by the subject during the experience flow. The hackers themselves in their publication Jargon Jargon emphasize the similarity of their activities with meditation, ecstasy, merging with the object of activity. It should be noted that the researchers themselves experience flow on their electronic page on the Internet emphasize that this phenomenon is universal: despite the fact that people are engaged in completely different activities, "their descriptions of this experience are surprisingly similar" (Csikzentmihalyi, www.flownetwork. com).

The description of the experience of the flow experience is in many ways similar to the descriptions of the subject located in “virtual” reality - the reality of a computer game or information space (for example, on the Internet). As in experiencing the experience of flow, virtual reality exists for the subject as relevant here and now; there is no past and no future in it. It was said about the experience of the stream that actions and their awareness merge; a person who is "in virtual reality has the impression that he is directly involved in the events." These and other characteristics of virtual realities were described in the work of N.A. Nosov "Psychological virtual reality".

Thus, another common feature that unites different types of personal changes under the influence of informatization is the feeling of being present in virtual reality, which is characteristic of all these activities. Yu. V. in their works point out similar characteristics of experiences in the process of computer games or the work of a programmer. Fomicheva, A.G. Shmelev, I.V. Burmistrov, A.A. Dolnykova and N.V. Chudova.

The problem of coexistence in the individual consciousness of different types of reality is discussed in the article by E.V. Sabotsky "Individual consciousness as a system of realities," in which he distinguishes ordinary and extraordinary reality. Unusual are the reality of our dreams, fairy tales, games. In an unusual reality, “those attributes that characterize the fundamental structures of consciousness are violated: there is a ... violation of physical causality (the direct impact of subjectivity — desire, will, words — on inanimate material objects)” [27]. The separation of realities, in the author's opinion, occurs "as a result of the destruction or weakening of the line between reality, dependent on my voluntary effort, and reality not dependent on it". Independent reality is not generated only by my “I”, it has its own dimension.

The result of such a violation of the boundary between dependent and independent realities can be the feeling that "the creation of the world is only the effort of our I, without the mediating participation of the body." Another phenomenon that is observed when erasing the boundary between two types of reality is “alienation of the I”, in which the dependent components of our “I” become independent. For example, it can be fears, "which in everyday reality are easily controlled and suppressed by our I, in a dream hypertrophied and take on visible forms (attack, catastrophe), going out of control of I".

V.M. Rozin, in his article "The Impact of Audio-Visual Information and Culture on a Person", addresses the problem of reality in the context of informatization problems. He argues that there are many types of realities and one "existence". How, according to V.M. Rosina, in psychology the reality of human dreams is affirmed, in religion the reality of God, the saints, so it can be argued that the reality of the world that Internet users or computer gamers go to. The author introduces the concept of reality (which is different from "existence") - this is "a world in which a person (individual) can live a full life." Virtual reality is defined by the author as one of the types of symbolic realities created "on the basis of computer and non-computer technology and in which the principles of feedback are implemented." The novelty of virtual systems is that a person can actively influence the events occurring in them, choose a line of conduct. Virtual reality, according to V.M. Rosina, sensual, vital, represents the reality of the event "here and now."

In connection with the advent of virtual realities, the question arises of the negative consequences of their distribution, related to the fact that "in these systems, a person can lose reference points in the world, stop understanding what is real and what is illusory." On the other hand, N.A. Nosov emphasizes that computer virtual reality is a safer version of symbolic experience than altered states of consciousness (interest in which has greatly increased lately), achieved through the use of narcotic drugs.

At the present time it is difficult to talk about these problems on a large scale, since virtual realities have not yet become so widespread, but there are private areas where the problem of "leaving" the real world into the world of computer games or programs is acute. Such problem areas are the study of personality changes under the influence of information technology - this is: the fascination with computer games, traveling (so-called "navigation") through computer networks and so-called hacking
A special conversation deserves the activities of users on the Internet, which has many features compared to any other application of information technology. The activity of users in the computer network of the Internet can be divided into several types: cognitive, gaming and communicative.

Cognitive activity on the Internet is a search for information both on keywords and through the transition from one hypertext link to another — such "walking" on links has been called "navigation." As a rule, everyone who places any information on his web page refers to other pages on the Internet; thus, the user, even if he was looking for some specific information, has the opportunity to move from one link to another almost infinitely. At the same time on the Internet you can find information of a completely different kind and quality: from scientific articles, research and libraries to the home pages of schoolchildren and housewives.

Communication activities on the Internet are quite diverse. In addition to communicating via e-mail, when messages come to the addressee some time after sending, the Internet provides users with the ability to communicate in real time (so-called "chat"): for this there are special virtual "rooms" and channels. Here the user is given the opportunity to communicate in real time with a large number of people, and tune in to a conversation with an individual. Interesting is the opinion of M. Banks, the author of the “Guide to Survival in Cyberspace,” who believes that mostly people use the Internet in order to be able to communicate. "If we could take into account everything that happens on the Internet, communication would have prevailed," writes M. Banks (Banks, 1998). The author believes that the main attraction of real-time communication on the Internet is anonymity (however, seemingly, as M. Banks believes).

With the advent of computer networks, joint computer games became possible, where the number of players is often not limited to two. Необходимо отметить, что если обычная компьютерная игра имеет ограниченное количество вариантов развития сюжета, но при большом количестве участников - живых людей, игровое взаимодействие кажется более реальным.

Как было показано в статье Ю.Д. Бабаевой и А.Е. Войскунского, психологические последствия применения информационных технологий носят амбивалентный характер. С одной стороны, можно указать большое количество положительных влияний на пользователей сети Интернет в связи с видом деятельности в ней. Так, поиск информации по ключевым словам позволит любому пользователю найти много разных материалов по интересующему его вопросу, познакомиться с разными точками зрения на данную проблему, самому задуматься над возникающими противоречиями, стимулирует его собственную активность и творческий потенциал. В статье "Психологические последствия информатизации" можно найти указание на то, что компьютеризация способствует смене авторитарного стиля обучения на демократический, когда обучающийся знакомится с различными точками зрения на проблему, сам формулирует свое мнение.

Коммуникативная деятельность в сети Интернет может способствовать появлению мотивации овладения письмом у детей, а в случае переписки с помощью электронной почты пользователями усваиваются новые формы и своеобразные правила общения. Авторы статьи "Психологические последствия информатизации" указывают и на то, что новые формы письменного общения могут в будущем обогатить традиционное письменное общение. Так, при общении посредством электронной почты большое внимание уделяется словам собеседника, конкретным формулировкам - при ответе на письмо принято цитировать фрагмент предыдущего сообщения. В качестве других положительных эффектов опосредствованного общения авторы указывают интенсификацию изучения иностранных языков, актуализацию культурных и географических знаний.

Говоря о положительных сторонах компьютерных игр, необходимо отметить, что они могут выполнять функцию психологической разгрузки, играть роль своеобразного психологического тренинга. В целом, компьютерные игры представляют собой социально приемлемый вид символического опыта, важного для развития личности.

Однако, ко всем положительным последствиям применения информационных технологий добавляются и отрицательные. Так, навигация по сети Интернет (связанная с любым видом деятельности), может способствовать появлению своеобразного ухода от реальности, синдрома (нарко)зависимости от Интернета, при котором процесс навигации "затягивает" субъекта настолько, что он оказывается не в состоянии полноценно функционировать в реальном мире. Так, в самой сети Интернет уже существуют неофициальные консультации, оказывающие помощь тем, кто страдает от этого синдрома, созданы специальные программы, ограничивающие время пребывания в сети. Важным представляется и тот факт, что в пятую редакцию официальной классификации психических заболеваний в США "DSM-5" предложено включить раздел "Кибернетические расстройства". В операциональном плане описание данного феномена больше похоже на зависимость от алкоголя, азартных игр или наркотиков: сюда входят такие "симптомы", как толерантность к навигации в Интернете, появление психомоторного беспокойства, настойчивых размышлений о происходящем к киберпространстве, сокращение участия в значимых видах общественной деятельности или полный отказ от нее.

В более глобальном плане можно говорить о возможности аутизации пользователей ИТ при увлечении "моделированием, проигрыванием" различных ситуаций при помощи компьютера. В Информационном письме Министерства образования "Об информационной культуре в семейном образовании" А.Г. Асмолов отмечает, что информационные технологии способствуют уходу детей и подростков от действительности. Ю.Д. Бабаева и А.Е. Войскунский считают, что у детей, увлекающихся компьютерными технологиями, может возникнуть "сужение интересов за счет внимания лишь к новинкам информационных технологий, следования моде в этой области".

Анализ психологических работ, посвященных проблемам последствий применения информационных технологий

В настоящее время имеется достаточно мало психологических работ, посвященных психологическим последствиям компьютеризации, происходящим в глобальном, личностном плане. В соответствии с тремя выделенными видами эскапизма или "ухода" от реальности, представляется необходимым рассмотреть исследования, касающиеся личностных изменений, происходящих под влиянием деятельности: профессиональной деятельности программиста, увлечения компьютерными играми и групповой игровой деятельностью в Интернете.

В недавно опубликованной работе А.А. Долныковой и Н.В. Чудовой "Психологические особенности суперпрограммистов" рассматриваются психологические особенности профессионалов-программистов. В задачу данного исследования входило изучение особенностей образа мира и личностных особенностей высококвалифицированных программистов - "суперпрограммистов" (а также проводилось сравнение их по этим характеристикам с другими специалистами, работающими с компьютером). Авторы считают, что для программистов характерны бесконечное упорство, стремление к созданию своего мира - в пределах компьютерной среды и неприятие барьеров и запретов, существующих в реальном мире. Как показали исследования, для большинства суперпрограммистов характерно предпочтение процесса работы получению результата, процесс взаимодействия с компьютером оказывается внутримотивированным. У суперпрограммистов при назывании образных ассоциаций, которые вызывает у них компьютер, на первом плане оказываются образы, связанные с "творением нового мира, новой реальности". Часто называются и образы, связанные с творчеством.

Авторы подчеркивают, что главным отличием суперпрограммистов от всех пользователей более низкой квалификации является "внутренняя" мотивация компьютерной деятельности. Компьютер выступает для суперпрограммиста "как средство создания и соавтор особого мира, познаваемого интеллектуальным, а не эмоциональным путем". Исследователи считают, что работа на компьютере представляет для программиста заменитель общения и позволяет "приемлемым способом отвлечься от реального социального взаимодействия, уйти в свой компьютерный мир".

Интересны и результаты по исследованию модели межличностного оценивания суперпрограммистов. Эта модель характеризуется "отсутствием критериев оценки", амбивалентностью отношения ко всем личностным свойствам партнера; при этом образы друга, врага и самого себя одинаково близки. Этот факт авторы объясняют, обращаясь к самой деятельности суперпрограммиста: "системное программирование не требует общения с людьми", программисту "нет необходимости анализировать тайные мотивы партнера по общению, нет сложностей с тонким пониманием его внутреннего мира, ему не нужно упорство для преодоления чьих-то возражений", все сложности, которые возникают в процессе работы, преодолеваются исключительно интеллектуальным путем. В работе особенно подчеркивается, что самосознание программиста "релевантно мироощущению демиурга". Это и объясняет амбивалентное отношение к личностным качествам партнера по общению - в своем собственном мире для творца "любое противопоставление относительно, добро и зло зависят от воли его создателя". Важными личностными предпосылками успешной деятельности программиста являются, на взгляд авторов, следующие черты: дистанцированность от других людей, погруженность в собспвенное интеллектуальное переживание, интровертированность.

Таким образом, можно сделать вывод о том, что даже профессиональная деятельность может служить для субъекта своего рода возможностью уйти от реальности в мир, в котором он может почувствовать себя творцом, "демиургом", где все подвластно его воле, реальность становится зависимой от его команды. В этом иллюзорном, компьютерном мире все трудности преодолеваются, по мнению А.А. Долныковой и Н.В. Чудовой, исключительно интеллектуальным путем.

Более легкую и доступную возможность уйти в мир иллюзий представляют собой компьютерные игры, фактически изначально предназначенные для этой цели и предоставления игроку положительных эмоций.
Работа, проведенная Ю.В. Фомичевой, а А.Г. Шмелевым и И.В. Бурмистровым представляется сходной с исследованием, рассмотренным выше. Так же, как и в работе А.А. Долныковой и Н.В.Чудовой, перед авторами стоит задача изучения личностных особенностей, только уже не программистов, а игроков в компьютерные игры. В результате проведенного исследования были найдены различия в структуре самосознания игроков, в зависимости от их "опытности".

В работе Ю.В. Фомичевой, А.Г. Шмелева и И.В. Бурмистрова "Психологические корреляты увлеченности компьютерными играми" можно найти описание основных характеристик и требований компьютерных игр, предъявляемых игроку, которые обеспечивают психологическую удовлетворенность игрока. Это: постоянная мыслительная активность, требуемая быстрота и точность реакций, иллюзия непосредственного воздействия на игровую среду, возможность играть в режимах разной интенсивности. Особый эффект игры заключается в том, что она имеет условный характер и позволяет отвлечься от реальности с ее сложностью и ответственностью. Как считают авторы статьи, изменения в структуре личности могут происходить за счет того, что компьютерная игра обеспечивает интенсивный опыт анализа собственных успехов и неудач, что приводит к изменению Я-образа и локуса контроля игрока. Действительно, в результате исследования выяснилось, что более опытные "игроки" отличаются от неопытных более дифференцированными представлениями о себе, и локус их субъективного контроля больше сдвинут в интернальную область.

"Опытность" игроков оказывается связанной с показателями по шкалам с показателями мотивации саморазвития, ухода от социума (бытовых и социальных проблем) и конформизма (который в меньшей степени осознается "игроками"), и обратно связанной с мотивацией предпочтения компьютера. Среди других характеристик "игроков" важно отметить развитое логическое мышление, эмоциональную устойчивость, доминантность, рациональность, мечтательность, прямолинейность, расслабленность.

Интересен и сравнительный анализ образа "Я" у данных испытуемых: у "опытных игроков":

1. В целом самооценка выше, чем у не игроков.
2. Идеальные и реальные компоненты структуры "Я"-образа сливаются и переносятся в структуру "Я" в компьютерной игре". Этот факт можно трактовать как подтверждение того, что компьютерная игра дает игроку возможность ощутить себя как свой идеал.
3. Элементы "порядочный" и "человек, которому можно доверить личные переживания", сливаются с элементом "неудачник"( "игроки" воспринимают человека, соответствующего общепризнанным моральным нормам как неудачника).

По сравнению с контрольной группой "игроки" оказались более эгоцентричны, активны, агрессивно, демонстративны.

Таким образом, компьютерные игры благодаря тому, что в них создается "иллюзия непосредственного воздействия" представляют собой реальность, более привлекательную для игроков, чем обыденный мир с его сложностями и проблемами. Благодаря описанным в работе психологическим характеристикам компьютерных игр игрок имеет возможность ощутить себя как свой идеал.

A special kind of computer games are group role-playing games, the so-called. MUD (Multi User Dimension / Dungeon - Multiplayer Dimension / Dungeon), which is devoted to the study of the article "Group game activity on the Internet" A.E. Voyskunskogo. Basically, such games take place as the exchange of texts or just replicas in the style of Fantasy (fantastic literature) written by each of the players. The MUD member chooses his character, gets into his role; at the same time, his actions in the game depend on his characteristics (strength, wisdom, cunning, etc.), which are expressed quantitatively and increase (or decrease) depending on the player’s success or failure. Role-playing games of this kind are, in the opinion of the author of the article, a type of Internet addiction syndrome and, more broadly, “escapism”, an escape from reality. MUDs are completely different from computer games, rather, they "resemble a club of interests," in which players are always ready to help each other and are interested in communication. In addition, if a computer game always has a limited number of plot options, everything depends on the players' fantasy in the MUD, the game can be virtually infinite, there is nothing foreseen in it. Due to such characteristics of the game, it can be observed, according to the author, according to the principle of "melange thread" (a term introduced by N. Nosov for virtual realities): as one thread smoothly interweaves into another, gradually displacing the old one, and reality can smoothly, without visible "joints" move into another - virtual ".

Consideration of this kind of games is of particular interest, since, as already mentioned, they can be the most smooth, even imperceptible for the players themselves, the transition into a "virtual" reality. Unfortunately, the research of the MUD mainly concerns the issues of group dynamics, identification, and the nature of the “departure” into virtual reality interests scientists only in theoretical terms and has not yet been studied in detail.

Another problem area in the study of global personality change is the so-called hacking. This paper proposes an understanding of this phenomenon as another way of escape (escapism) or immersion into the world of illusory reality, created and modified by the hacker according to his taste, and to some extent - group ("hacker") ideas. Often hackers (especially the media) describe on the negative side, emphasizing their forbidden actions - the development and distribution of computer viruses (which spoil or destroy information), hacking electronic information protection systems, “theft of funds using computer networks. However, according to A .E. Voyskunsky and Yu.D. Babaeva in the article “Psychological consequences of informatization”, “considering hacking only as a negative phenomenon is very one-sided and incorrect.” Illegal actions are characteristic only for an hour and hackers, while other members of this group tend to experience involvement in activities, searching and solving creative problems, while often the intrinsic motivation for interacting with a computer can be so strong that hackers ignore external motivations of the activity (complete the task on time, get specific results).

Recently, interest in the problem of hackers has increased, especially in the media. On computer crimes are increasingly written in newspapers and magazines, there are television stories about teenage hackers (for example, the program "Till 16 and older" was devoted to hackers). It should be noted that such popularity of this topic in the media attracts many adolescents who are beginning to study information technology in order to someday be called hackers. Thus, some sources state that an increasing number of teenage school students, when asked what they would like to become, point to hacking as their future profession.

The problem of hackers is relevant for psychologists from several points of view. First, for general psychology, the question of the development of personality in the conditions of a new, very special sign environment acquires particular importance. Within the framework of cultural-historical theory, we can talk about the problem of the role of the "second level" of mental functions. In a narrower sense, we are talking about various options for the formation of personality in the new sign environment. As part of the study of the psychological consequences of informatization, hacking is one of the variants of “negative” personal development under the influence of information technologies, the study of the mechanisms of which can help in the study of other variants of the consequences of informatization.

In this paper, an attempt was made to study the personal and intellectual characteristics of those who call themselves hackers and compare them with the control group of subjects, which included teenagers who are passionate about information technology and older people who do not consider themselves to belong to this subculture.

This work is based on a previously performed study of the psychological characteristics of hackers, whose task was to identify subgroups among the subjects using the method of free interview. The hypothesis of the existence of subgroups among hackers was confirmed. When analyzing the interview, parameters were selected that were markers of such hacker features as demonstrativeness and conservatism. When analyzing the results, the groups of "demonstrative", "conservative" and "harmonious" hackers were identified among the subjects.

Before you begin a review of literature devoted directly to hacking, you need to discuss the subject of the study, the definition of which, for various reasons (mainly historical) does not yet exist - all researchers usually identify different aspects of this problem and do not identify uniform criteria for determining hacking . The hackers themselves in their publication Hacker Jargon (which contains all the history, traditions and information about hackers) identify eight definitions of hacking. The definitions of hackers can be arranged on a kind of continuum, from socially approved definitions to those with clearly defined asocial features. The most positive definition of a hacker usually includes such words as "enthusiast", "specialist", "professional"; from the very beginning to the present day the word "wizard" has been preserved - magician, wizard; Russian hackers often use the word "guru". Thus, in a positive aspect, a hacker is a highly qualified specialist, programmer, and enthusiast working for the work process itself, striving to improve their knowledge and skills (for example, their small size is considered to be one of the advantages of hacker programs. The shortest, easiest program, and even held a special competition among hackers to write such programs).

On the other hand, hackers often direct their brilliant skills to goals that are blamed in society - hacking programs, stealing money, and making a profit from this activity. Here, hackers are usually compared with criminals (only in the computer world), seeking to spoil as much information as possible (for example, using computer viruses), earn money by hacking banks using computer networks. Strong among hackers and anarchist beliefs. So, you can meet the following statement: "A characteristic feature of self-consciousness ... hackers is the principle of non-belonging to society, which in their understanding leads to independence." One of the main generally accepted slogans of hackers proclaimed in Jargon is the requirement of access to any information. A.E. Voyskunsky and Yu.D. In this connection, Babaeva dies, that something like the image of Robin Hood is added to the hacker’s appearance: hackers return information to the “information-disadvantaged people”, make it publicly available.

The history of "hacking"

It should be noted that the contradictions and disagreements in the definitions of hackers are of a historical nature: along with changes in computer technology over the past 30-40 years, both the ideas about hackers and the hackers themselves have changed. So, we can talk about two generations of hackers on the basis of an external, objective criterion - work on a computer or on a personal computer. The difference between them lies in the very mode of activity. Computer programmers had to think carefully about their entire program before working with the machine (since there was a huge shortage of "machine time" at that time), they could even "reassign" technical work to someone directly. machine). Today's programmer works with the computer one on one, he has the opportunity to conduct a "step by step" dialogue with the machine. On the other hand, there used to be a huge gap between the knowledge of a programmer and other people - there were no personal computers yet, and programmers were the only ones who worked on a computer.

With the advent of personal computers, the circle of computer users has greatly expanded, users of different skill levels have appeared, and the expression “working on the computer” itself has become quite commonplace. The profession of a programmer is becoming closer to ordinary life. In accordance with changes in the work of programmers, the idea of ​​hackers has changed - many authors point out that earlier hackers called the highest professionals, peculiar "magicians" in the field of computers. Before the advent of computer networks, in order to commit a crime, it was necessary to get to a specific computer and get permission to work for it. Currently, computer crimes are committed mainly through networks and the offender may be located in another city or country.

Thus, it is possible to distinguish at least two periods of "hacking" - before the advent of personal computers and after. In the literature, you can find a more fractional division of hackers into groups associated with the emergence of new technologies: large computers, personal computers, computer networks.

Many authors believe that an important stage in the history of hacking is the emergence of so-called "phreakers", whose main occupation was experimenting with telephone networks (mainly aimed at not paying for telephone calls) using special devices for this. In a sense, phreakers were the forerunners of hackers and were not inferior to them in terms of qualifications (which was much higher than those of telephone companies) or on any other parameters.

The phreakers had their own “media” (for example, the bulletin “TAR” - the “Technical Assistance Program” - which, by 1975, had a subscription of more than 30 thousand people), special conferences and phreaker societies. Telephone conferences later became modern BBS (electronic bulletin boards), and many of the hackers used to experiment with telephone networks in the past. The first article on telephone conferences and phreakers was written by journalist Eddie River, who happened to take part in phreaker gatherings. River noted that these people have certain difficulties in communication: "A depressing silence reigned at their meetings: people were too embarrassed to communicate directly, without a telephone" (quoted in Markoff and Hefner, 1996).

As you can see, along with the change in computer technology, the concept of hacking, which includes many components, has also changed. The mass media that advertised the biggest computer crimes had a big impact on hacker ideas.

"Underground" as a social medium of hacker activity

The question of the social organization of hackers and their idea of ​​themselves as a group seems important. Thus, in various articles and publications about hackers you can often find words such as subculture, "underground" and even "System". Some authors associate the emergence of "subcultures" of hackers with the hippie movement, which "realizing its location on the threshold of the era of the global informatization community, saw prospects for global communication based on creative freedom of expression of thoughts, ideals, and beliefs." In such a context, the principle of freedom of information is usually tied to the principles of hippies, other ideals of the hacker subculture are “free of charge and the availability of any information, distrust of the authorities and awareness of the progressive role of computer technologies”. Despite the fact that representatives of the underground group themselves in their publication Hacker Jargon claim that this subculture consists of several subcultures and is not homogeneous, some researchers indicate that hacking is a "counterculture" opposing the official society. It should be noted that there are grounds for this. So, in 1996, in response to the adoption in the USA of the Telecommunications Act, J.P. Barlow, one of the founders of the organization for the protection of the rights of citizens of the Network, published the “Declaration of Independence of Cyberspace”. In it, the author asserts the independence of the social and information space from the state and government and the laws that they are “trying to impose” in Cyberspace. The author contrasts the material world, in which private property is recognized, to the information space, which consists of "interactions, relationships, and thought itself," in which "we form our own Social Contract."

As you can see above, the concept of "hacking" includes various components of activity, interaction with computer and information environment. But a clear definition of a person who can be called a hacker, unfortunately, does not exist. In this connection, the research of sociologist G.R. Meyer, who in her work "The Social Organization of the Computer Underground" emphasizes that every social group that deals with hackers (media, criminology, ordinary programmers and hackers themselves) accepts definitions that, one way or another, are consistent with her own social position. For example, the attitude or definition of hackers usually depends on whether the author of the publication had to suffer the consequences of their work (did he encounter computer viruses, lose important information).

The author notes that in the 1950s, the word hacker meant a programmer, brilliantly versed in his business. G.R. Meyer believes that the media, which develop their ideas about hackers on the basis of information about hackers-criminals and "popular police novels", played a special role in such a change in the meaning of the word "hacker".

Thus, for us in the literature review it is important each time to pay special attention to the sources of information and the exclusivity of some cases, which the authors describe as vivid examples of “hacking”. In fact, such "bright", well-known examples of hacking are not typical; on the contrary, a typical hacker is one whose existence is unknown to society.

Analysis of foreign sources on hacking issues

As already noted above, the actual psychological research hackers are missing. At the same time, there are quite a large number of works ((written by the hackers themselves, IT specialists, criminologists, lawyers, journalists) dedicated to the problem of hackers. Therefore, an attempt was made to analyze this literature, to the extent possible, from the point of view of psychology. As mentioned above [42], such an analysis should be carried out taking into account the social position of the authors and their relationship to the phenomenon of hacking.

One of the first publications that touched upon the problem of hackers was the book by J. Weizenbaum (a specialist in Computer Science and the author of the program, imitating a conversation between a psychotherapist and a client) "The Capabilities of Computers: From Judgments to Calculations." It was written in 1975; hackers (the author calls them "obsessed programmers") did not yet write viruses, did not crack programs that were protected from copying, did not know what computer networks were. One of the main conclusions that J. Weizenbaum made regarding hackers was the conclusion that they were different from ordinary programmers. This difference concerns the motivation of a regular and "obsessed" programmer: if the first writes a program in order to solve a specific task (that is, the program is a means of solving it), then the "obsessed" programmer writes a program for its own sake, only because that he likes the process of writing, testing and communicating with the computer. Another feature of the "obsessed" programmer is his resemblance to a roulette player: when working at a computer, the programmer has an element of uncertainty, he can believe in the existence of a special character in a computer or program. Often, programmers have special signs that help them "persuade" the machine to work, love or dislike the computer for some commands or keys. Третья особенность работы одержимого программиста состоит в том, что "игра, которую разыгрывает вычислительная машина, определяется системами идей, диапазон которых ограничивается только пределами воображения человека, физические границы для событий, происходящих внутри вычислительной машины на электронном и механическом уровнях, с точки зрения этой игры несущественны". Возможно, этим и объясняется мотивация программистов, пользователей, хакеров: " ...можно самим писать пьесы и ставить их в театре, свободном от любых ограничений. Программист вычислительных машин - творец миров, в которых он сам является единственным законодателем. Но миры практически любой сложности можно создавать в форме программ для вычислительных машин. Более того, определенные и построенные таким образом системы исполняют собственные запрограммированные сценарии".

Выше были перечислены скорее "отрицательные" характеристики "одержимого программиста" (уход от реального мира, пренебрежение результатом работы). Но "одержимого программиста" отличает, прежде всего, высокий профессионализм. В то время, когда Дж. Вейценбаум писал свою книгу, хакерами были знатоки программирования, эрудиты в области ЭВМ. У хакеров был своеобразный "культ" знаний компьютерных систем.

Журналисты не только охотно обратились к теме хакерства, но и создали самое большое количество мифов об этой субкультуре. Среди журналистских "расследований" наиболее интересной и подробной представляется книга Дж. Маркофа и К. Хефнер "Хакеры"; основной целью авторов при написании этой книги была, по их словам, попытка "воссоздать, основываясь на реальных фактах, картину особой культуры, которую создали компьютерщики 80-х".

Книга Джона Маркофа и Кэти Хефнер "Хакеры", посвященная "компьютерному андерграунду", состоит из трех повестей, в которых проблема хакерства поворачивается каждый раз другой стороной. В своем повествовании авторы последовательно придерживаются хронологического принципа: первая повесть вводит читателя в проблему, рассказывая о телефонных фриках, первых компьютерах и первых разбирательствах по поводу их взлома.