Language as a system

The concept of language as a system dates back to the works of ancient scholars, but they are most clearly formed in the works of Humboldt and Saussure. In the era of structuralism - language as a system.

A system is an ordered set of interrelated elements.

Features that can be observed in the language:

1. Systemic relationships manifest themselves even in small elements of systems.

2. The addition or reduction of an element leads to a change in the connections in the system.

Controversial issues regarding the systemic language:

1. We do not solve the problem of systemic nature: are these intrinsic properties or is this a way of describing a language.

2. Is the system and the structure the same or different things? Is language a system or structure? At the beginning of the 20th century, these terms were identical. Now they are getting divorced. A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent elements that form a more complex unity, viewed from the side of its elements.

Structure - the composition and internal organization of a whole, considered by its integrity.

The system is a synthetic phenomenon (we look at it through the elements), and the structure is analytical (we perceive it as a whole). Therefore, they are delimited.

3. What is more important for understanding the system: units of language or relations between these units. The answer lies in the fact that we must take into account both the analysis of units of language and the analysis of the relations between them. But this question is still open.

4. Are all levels of the language equally systemic?

5. Is there consistency in the diachronic, that is, the development of the language systemically or non-systemically?

Why can not we unequivocally answer these questions? Since language as a system is a rather complicated education. In order to understand what the system language, we must have an idea of ​​what types of systems exist. There are several classifications of systems.

1. Homogeneous and heterogeneous. Homogeneous - consisting of homogeneous elements. Heterogeneous - consisting of heterogeneous elements (disintegration of a large system into microsystems is observed).

2. Primary and secondary. Primary - form objects, phenomena, properties of the surrounding reality. Secondary - consist of material facts, reflecting external reality, its properties and relations through human consciousness.

3. Artificial and natural. Artificial - all its elements and relations between these elements are formed by people. Natural - when the elements themselves exist objectively, regardless of the will of the person.

4. Deterministic and probabilistic. Deterministic - elements interact in a strictly defined and unambiguous way. Knowing the position of one element, we can predict the position of another element. Probabilistic - in them the order of the elements is not rigid.

Language is a heterogeneous, secondary, artificial, probabilistic system.

How do researchers try to describe this system? At present, the idea of ​​the level description of systems has been accepted by various linguistic directions and schools. That is, researchers are trying to describe this system as leveled. The level assumes the presence of higher and lower classes or steps of this system. The concept of level in linguistics is most often associated with various sets of units. Levels are the basic units of the language system. The difference in schools and directions is seen in the fact that different researchers differently distinguish this set of linguistic units. The question arises in what units to consider as the main, and what not to consider.

The difficulty, above all, arises in the fact that it is difficult to isolate those properties of linguistic units, on the basis of which these units can be combined into levels. Researchers, in particular V. V. Solntsev. suggested a way out.

Solntsev V.M. believed that the properties of all units of the language are manifested in their relations with other units. These all relationships can be reduced to three types :

• Syntagmatic relationships.

• Paradigmatic relations.

• Hierarchical relationships.

Syntagmatic relations between elements of a language are relations of units in a linear sequence. Otherwise, this relationship is called combinatorial. Paradigmatic - groupings of units into classes based on the commonality or similarity of some of their essential properties. That is, paradigmatic relations are never characterized by the relation of real interaction. Hierarchical - relations according to the degree of complexity or relations of the inclusion of less complex units into more complex ones.

These three types of relations of language are peculiar to all units of the language. And these relationships are closely related to each other. Syntagmatic relations can be entered by units relatively similar (for example, phonemes are combined only with phonemes, words with words). The ability to enter into syntagmatic relations determines the ability of these same units to enter into paradigmatic relations (for example, phonemes are grouped into classes or paradigms only with each other. We cannot include morphemes or words here).

Extremely wide unions of language units are called superclasses or superparadigms or superparadigms. In each superparadigm there are units that are homogeneous in this system (for example, words are grouped into word paradigms, phoneme superparadigm).

Hierarchical relations - among members of different superparadigms (different classes).

We single out superparadigms in accordance with common characteristics characteristic of the members of this paradigm. According to Solntsev, such superparadigms are levels of the language system. A level is a superparadigm in which units can only enter into syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, but between them units of language enter into hierarchical relations. That is, the properties of units of language (the ability to enter into relationships) were the basis on which the levels of the language are distinguished. Units of a language within their own level are indivisible (a word cannot consist of words, a morpheme of morphemes, too). The unit of a higher level consists of units of a lower level (the word

The problem is actual, what signs a unit of language must possess in order for it to enter into different kinds of relations. Therefore, it is important that such a unit of language.

It is important to distinguish between units of language and units of speech. The language units are an abstract entity that is reconstructed by linguists in the process of scientific knowledge (phoneme), and the units of speech are the concrete realization of this abstract entity.

Alloemic system - is a union of speech units and language units.

Allophone (speech) - phoneme (language); morph - morpheme, allomorph; Loxa, Allolex - lexeme; saying, sentence - syntax.

Units of language and speech interact. Isomorphism - there is a uniformity between some elements.

The question of the exact number of language units remains open. It depends on how many levels we can open. Depending on this, from 1 to 8 language units are distinguished. To select the units of the language, you need to know their signs.

Signs of language units:

1. Functional significance. Units must perform a strictly assigned function.

2. The language unit must be substantial. That is, a language unit must have different forms of existence.

3. Language units must represent a class of variations.

4. Reproducibility. That is, the use of units in speech as something ready and given. A language unit must have a set of specific features, due to which this unit can be easily reproduced in speech.

5. Discreteness. It is secretability, isolation from the flow of speech as a specific object.

6. Linearity. That is, units appear in speech and follow one another, forming linear series. The concept of position is important. Positional changes should be taken into account.

7. Units of language must be stable. The unit of language must remain identical to itself.

8. The unit of language must be bilateral. This is a plan of expression and a plan of content.

9. Global. That is, it is impossible to divide a unit without losing the main specific property.

The following language units are distinguished:

1. The phoneme is the basic insignificant unit of the sound structure of a language (Baudouin de Courtenay). Not all researchers name a language unit, but it is recognized by most researchers. This is a one-way unit: having a plan of expression, lack of a plan of content. Phoneme is a means of differentiating meaning. Being a part of sound shells and words, the phoneme participates in the expression of meaning. A phoneme is a building material for a language sign and participates in the expression of meaning.

Opposition (base) - a set of integral and differential features.

Syntagmatic relations are a combination of phonemes in a linear series. Distribution - compatibility with other phonemes.

As a rule, different allophones are not found in the same position. Such allophones are in an additional distribution relationship. Alternations of sound occur in the linear series: positional (phonetic), historical.

Diereza - loss of sound. Stunning. Affriction. Assimilation is the assimilation of one sound to another. Accommodation - occurs between units of the same quality - the adaptation of one sound to another. Dissimilation is a likeness.

Phonetic alternation due to the quality of phonemes or position in the word. Phonemes in speech are realized by allophones.

How to determine the phoneme?

Determine a strong position:

Significatory - a position in which the phoneme is different from all other phonemes is not neutralized and different words are distinguished. That is, weak positions are neutralized and different words are already distinguished.

Perceptual strong position - in which the sound is not affected by the position in the word and the phoneme can be easily recognized. Perceptual weak position - in which the sound is influenced by neighboring and thus the sound is one of the options positions.

A phoneme is recognized as a unit of language, as it enters into paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations, has a number of properties characteristic of this unit, therefore, the phoneme is distinguished as an independent unit.

2. A morpheme is recognized by most researchers as the basic unit of language. Possesses: substantiality, functional significance, reproducible, linear, stable.

Baudouin de Courtenay used the word morpheme to denote the minimum part of a word. Roots and affixes - morphemes. The base is not included in the morphemes, since it is not grammatically formed and includes other morphemes.

J. Vandries divided all language elements into two groups:

1. Elements expressing concepts and ideas - they are called semantemes.

2. Elements indicating the relationship between elements of the first group — they are called morphemes proper.

He attributed to the morphemes all the official means of the language, including the formal parts of words (intonation, stress, location).

All significant parts of the words do not apply to morphemes.

Bloomfield had another insight into morphemes. He defined the morpheme as the minimum sound segment, phonetically and semantically, different from other segments (roots, affixes, official words, parts of words, simple and significant words). Therefore, a sentence is an arrangement of morphemes. Hence, the morpheme is the shortest unit of the language and the word is excluded. The point of view of Baudouin de Courtenay is taken into account. The division of words into morphemes is carried out.

Specific properties of morphemes:

1. Syntactic dependence.

2. Associativity of meaning - the morpheme forms a superclass with distinct features. A morpheme is an invariant, realized in the idea of ​​a variant. They are called allomorphs. Allomorphs form the paradigm of the root morpheme (end). There are different microparadigms at different levels.

Based on the position in the word, two major paradigms are distinguished:

1. Root.

2. Affix - include prefixes, postfixes, suffixes, interfixes, confixes, transfixes (not inherent in the Russian language). In other languages, there are infixes - suffixes that are inserted into the root.

A great contribution to the morphemic was made by American structuralists. They distinguished between segmental and suprasegmental morphemes. Segmental - significant parts of the word (i.e. morphemes). Suprasegmental - units of force, tone, etc. Suprasegmental are morphemes, they are considered morphemes, as they are related to a specific content. Suprasegmental without segment cannot exist.

Not all researchers consider suprasegmental units in morpheme composition. Americans introduced the concept of subtractive morphemes or negative. There are no such in Russian.

The principle of non-residual semenity of words - everything must in a word be divided to the end.

There is a certain category of morphemes - unifixes (unique).

Morphemes enter into syntagmatic relations — they are in a linear series and interact with each other.

We must take into account the rules of harmonizing morphemes.

Hierarchical relations (relations of a word and morpheme):

1. Morphemes are easily separated from the word and are not capable of independent use.

2. The morpheme and the word are very closely related. For example, in isolating languages, when isolated from the word morpheme, it becomes indistinguishable from the word.

In Russian, the level of words and morphemes is quite clearly delineated, therefore, units of one level enter into hierarchical relations with units of another level.

3. The word. Scherba believed that the word - a secondary phenomenon, to some extent coincides with the sentence. He said that the word can be separated from the sentence and calmly used.

In linguistics, a different opinion is common: the word is a unit of language. It is very difficult to determine what a word is. The word as a unit of language is supremely abstract.

There are word discharges. We will talk about what a word is in Russian.

Signs:

The question of separateness and word identity. Separately - how to isolate a word in a speech stream. Identity - whether the options are found in speech are different or in one word.

Separate word problem is solved:

1. Orientation to graphic criteria - each word is separated separately.

2. Phonetic criterion - after each word there should be a minimum pause; one stress in the word with which sounds begins.

3. Structural principle - we cannot insert another element into the word (excl .: no one else has it).

4. Morphological - each word is morphologically formed (excl .: numerals).

5. Syntactic - the word represents a potential minimum of a sentence.

6. Self-semantic.

The identity problem — the word form — represents the paradigm of a single word.

Specific features: reproducibility, discreteness, nominativeness, relative stability, two-sided character, non-dualism, linearity, lexical-semantic compatibility, idiomaticity, impenetrability.

The expression pattern is a phonetic appearance. The content plan is the value as a whole.

Components of the word (content plan). Actually-LZ, GZ, derivational meaning, internal form, stylistic component.

LZ components: denotative and connotative macrocomponent. Denotative - proper value, connotative - narrow approach: emotional evaluation, intensity, imagery + broad approach: social component (inequality relations), gender (sexual).

Characteristic of syntagmatics and paradigmatics of the word

They talk about the interword and interword paradigmatics. Intra - distinguishes the paradigm of lexico-semantic variants, on the basis of a common seme. Interword - paradigms are distinguished on the basis of common sense. There are a number of groups in which words are combined in the sense of lexical, thematic group, semantic field, synonymic series, genus-group, associative series and some other groups (micro-paradigms).

Thematic group - words that are connected thematically are combined, but there can be no semantic connection.

The semantic field - a broader concept - combines words with common sema, but there can be words of different parts of speech (younger / older sister - in Russian).

The lexico-semantic group — a narrower group — combines words that have a common but one part of speech.

Synonymous series - the union of words that are close in meaning to one part of speech (there is also an antonymic series).

Associative relationships - words that are close in meaning but not synonymous are combined.

There may be grammatical paradigms, paradigms of primordial and borrowed words, neutral words and stylistically colored words.

Syntagmatic relationships - we need to combine words with each other. There must be a concordance: both grammatical and semantic.

There are two terms:

1. Semantic valency - the ability of a word to be combined with a certain circle of words.

2. Semantic distribution - a set of specific facts of a combination or sum of contexts in which a given unit can occur.

Hyphenation. Compatibility may be due to linguistic tradition.

Semantic disagreement - for example, sad joy - is used in artistic texts.

Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations are peculiar to words.

4. Syntactic units - word form, phrase, sentence. Some linguists distinguish SCC (complex syntactic integer), paragraph, text. But the text is not recognized by the majority as a language unit, as it is a combination of several sentences. Paragraph - since this is a graphic selection. SCC - as a speech unit. And the phrase - as we build it again in the statement.

All distinguish word form and sentence. Most emit a proposal. But not all. Yu.V.Fomenko believes that a sentence is a combination of language units. Those who recognize it as a syntactic unit speak of it as a model by which an infinite number of realizations is built.

In addition, the researchers talk about intermediate tiers:

1. Morphonological (at the junction of morphemes and phonemes) - this includes historical alternations, as well as stress.

2. The word formation level (at the junction of words and morphemes) - all the models by which words are created. With and without participation of morphemes.

3. Phraseological level (at the junction of words and phrases).

It follows from the above that the language is extremely systemic. Units at each level enter into syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, and between levels - into hierarchical ones.