Lecture
Time is a form of physical and mental processes, the condition of possibility of change [1] . One of the basic concepts of philosophy of physics, a conditional comparative measure of the motion of matter, as well as one of the coordinates of space-time, along which the world lines of physical bodies are stretched.
In philosophy, this is an irreversible flow (flowing only in one direction - from the past, through the present to the future) [2] , within which all the processes that exist in being that are facts take place. Nevertheless, there are theories with symmetric time, for example, the Wheeler-Feynman theory.
In the quantitative (metrological) sense, the concept of time has three aspects:
First of all, time is characterized by its one-pointedness (see Arrow of Time). Also, time is determined in a certain frame of reference, which can be either uneven (the process of the Earth rotating around the Sun or a human pulse), or even . The uniform reference frame is chosen “by definition”, earlier, for example, it was associated with the movement of the Solar System bodies (ephemeris time), and now atomic time is locally considered, and the second standard is 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom in the absence of a perturbation by external fields. It should be noted that this definition is not arbitrary, but associated with the most accurate periodic processes available to mankind at this stage in the development of experimental physics [3] .
Most modern scholars believe that the distinction between the past and the future is fundamental . According to the modern level of development of science, information is transferred from the past to the future, but not vice versa. The second law of thermodynamics also indicates that the entropy does not decrease in the future for an isolated system.
However, some scientists think a little differently. Stephen Hawking in his book "A Brief History of Time" disputes the claim that for physical laws there is a difference between the direction "forward" and "back" in time. Hawking argues that the transfer of information is possible only in the same direction in time, in which the total entropy of the Universe increases. Thus, the Second Law of Thermodynamics is trivial, since entropy grows with time, because we measure time in the direction in which entropy grows [4] .
The uniqueness of the past is considered very plausible. Opinions of scientists regarding the presence or absence of various "alternative" options for the future are different [5] .
There is also a cosmological direction of time, where the beginning of time is the Big Bang, and the passage of time depends on the expansion of the Universe.
Since the states of our entire world depend on time, the state of any system may also depend on time, as it usually happens. However, in some exceptional cases, the dependence of any quantity on time may turn out to be negligible, so that with high accuracy this characteristic can be considered independent of time. If such quantities describe the dynamics of a system, then they are called conserved quantities , or integrals of motion . For example, in classical mechanics, the total energy, the total momentum and the total angular momentum of an isolated system are integrals of motion.
Different physical phenomena can be divided into three groups:
At present, there is no universally accepted theory explaining and describing such a concept as Time. Many theories are being advanced (they may also be part of more general theories and philosophies) trying to substantiate and describe this phenomenon.
Classical physics
In classical physics, time is a continuous quantity, an a priori characteristic of the world, not defined by anything. As a basis for measurement, a certain, usually periodic, sequence of events is used, which is recognized as the benchmark of a certain period of time. This principle is based on the work hours.
Time in classical physics exists by itself, separately from space and any material objects in the world. Time as a stream of duration equally determines the course of all processes in the world. All processes in the world, regardless of their complexity, have no influence on the passage of time. Therefore, the time in classical physics is called absolute. I. Newton: “Absolute, true mathematical time by itself and by its very essence, without any relation to anything external, flows evenly, and is otherwise called duration ... All movements can accelerate or slow down, while the absolute time cannot change [6] The absoluteness of time is mathematically expressed in the invariance of the equations of Newtonian mechanics relative to Galilean transformations. All moments of time in the past, present and future are equal among themselves, time is uniform. The flow of time everywhere and everywhere in the world is the same and cannot change. Each real number can be assigned to a point in time, and, conversely, a real number can be assigned to each point in time. Thus, time forms a continuum. Similarly, by arithmetization (comparing each point to a number) of points of Euclidean space, it is possible to conduct arithmetization of all points of time from the present unlimited back to the past and unlimited forward to the future. To measure time, only one number is needed, that is, time is one-dimensional. The time intervals can be associated with parallel vectors that can be added and subtracted as straight segments. [7] [8] The most important consequence of the homogeneity of time is the energy conservation law (Noether’s theorem) [9] [10] . The equations of Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell's electrodynamics do not change their form when the sign of time changes to the opposite. They are symmetric with respect to time reversal (T-symmetry). Time in classical mechanics and electrodynamics is reversible. The mathematical expression of the reversibility of time in classical mechanics is that time enters the formulas of classical mechanics through the operator [eleven]
Thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, time is irreversible due to the existence of the law of increasing entropy of a closed system. The entropy of a closed system can only increase with time or remain constant [12] .
The quantum physics
The same is the role of time in quantum mechanics: despite the quantization of almost all quantities, time remains an external, unquantized parameter. Introduction of the time operator prohibited by the fundamentals of quantum mechanics. [13] In quantum mechanics, time is irreversible, due to the interaction in the process of measuring a quantum-mechanical object with a classical measuring device. The measurement process in quantum mechanics is asymmetric in time. In relation to the past, it gives probabilistic information about the state of the object. In relation to the future, he himself creates a new state. [14] The mathematical expression of the irreversibility of time in quantum mechanics is that time enters the Schrödinger and Dirac equations by the operator or its equivalent - energy [11] . In quantum mechanics, there is an uncertainty relation for time and energy: the law of energy conservation in a closed system can be verified by two measurements, with a time interval between them in , only accurate to the magnitude of order . [15]
Relativistic physics
In relativistic physics (Special Theory of Relativity, Special Relativity) two main postulates are postulated:
These postulates lead to the conclusion that events that are simultaneous in one frame of reference can be non-simultaneous in another frame of reference moving relative to the first. Thus, the course of time depends on the movement of the reference system. Mathematically, this dependence is expressed through the Lorentz transformation. [16] Space and time lose their independence and act as separate sides of a single space-time continuum (Minkowski space). Instead of absolute time and distance in three-dimensional space, preserved during Galileo’s transformations, the concept of an invariant interval appears, which remains under Lorentz’s transformations. [17] The cause-effect order of events in all reference systems does not change [18] . In a moving frame of reference, the passage of time from the point of view of a fixed frame of reference slows down (relativistic time dilation): . Here - time interval in a fixed frame of reference, - time interval in the moving reference frame, - the speed of movement of the moving frame of reference, - the speed of light in vacuum [19] .
Experience shows that in particle physics time is reversible in all processes, except for the decay of neutral mesons and some other heavy particles (violation of CP-invariance) [20] .
The general theory of relativity (GTR), based on the principle of equivalence of the forces of gravity and inertia, generalized the concept of four-dimensional Minkowski space-time in the case of non-inertial reference systems and fields. [21] . The metric properties of the space-time at each point under the influence of the field of aggression become different. The influence of the gravitational field on the properties of four-dimensional space-time is described by the metric tensor. Near massive bodies (at points with a large absolute value of the gravitational potential), the passage of time always slows down compared to the passage of time away from them (at points with a smaller absolute value of the gravitational potential). The relative time delay for two points of a weak constant gravitational field is equal to the difference of gravitational potentials divided by the square of the speed of light (Gravitational redshift). [22] On the horizon of a black hole event, from the point of view of the reference system associated with a remote observer, the passage of time completely stops [23] .
Quantum field theory
The most common relationship between the properties of space, time and matter in quantum field theory is formulated as a CPT theorem. She argues that the equations of quantum field theory do not change with the simultaneous application of three transformations: charge conjugation C - replacing all the particles with the corresponding antiparticles; spatial inversion P - replacing the signs of all spatial coordinates with opposite ones; time reversal T - replace the sign of time on the opposite.
By virtue of the CPT theorem, if a process occurs in nature, then a CPT-conjugate process can occur with the same probability, that is, a process in which particles are replaced by corresponding antiparticles (C-transformation), the projections of their spins change sign (P- transformation), and the initial and final states of the process are reversed (T-transformation). [24]
When using the method of Feynman diagrams, antiparticles are considered as particles propagating backwards in time. [25]
Synergy
Synergetic, during the resolution of the paradox of the arrow of time (why do reversible processes lead to irreversible phenomena?) Based on the study of processes in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics using the theory of chaos based on Poincare and Kolmogorov, advanced the concept of non-reducible to individual trajectories (classical mechanics) or wave functions (quantum mechanics) of a probabilistic description of chaotic classical or quantum systems by applying nonunitary transformations with complex eigenvalues and. [26] [27] This formulation of the equations of dynamics includes the violation of symmetry in time and irreversibility already at the level of the equations of motion. I. Prigogine: “time acquires its true meaning, associated with irreversibility or even with the“ history ”of the process, and is not just a geometric parameter characterizing movement” [28] .
Some theories operate on the so-called. “Instant”, chronon [29] - the smallest, elementary and unbreakable “quantum of time” (corresponding to the notion of “Planck time” and approximately 5.3 · 10 −44 s).
Psychology
In psychology, time is a subjective sensation and depends on the state of the observer. There are linear and circular (cyclic) time.
One of the first philosophers who began to reflect on the nature of time was Plato. Time (Greek χρόνος) he characterizes in his treatise Timaeus as a “moving likeness of eternity”. It is a characteristic of the imperfect dynamic world, where there is no good, but only the desire to possess it. Time, thus, reveals a moment of incompleteness and inferiority ( there is never time ). Eternity (Greek αἰών), by contrast, is a characteristic of the static world of the gods. Aristotle developed this understanding of time by defining it as a “measure of movement.” This interpretation was enshrined in his "Physics", and it laid the foundation of the natural science understanding of time.
At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Augustine developed the concept of subjective time, where it becomes a psychic phenomenon of changing perceptions (soul stretch — lat. Distentio animi ) [30] . Augustine distinguishes between three parts of time: present, past and future. The past is given in memory, and the future is in expectation (including in fear or in hope). Augustine notes such an aspect of time as irreversibility, since it is filled with accomplished events ( time is passing ). In addition to the human soul, time reveals itself in human history, where it is linear.
In the future, both interpretations of time develop in parallel. The natural science understanding of time deepens Isaac Newton, introducing the concept of “absolute time”, which flows quite evenly and has no beginning or end. Gottfried Leibniz follows Augustine, seeing in time a method of contemplating objects inside the monad. Leibniz is followed by Immanuel Kant, who owns the definition of time as “an a priori form of contemplation of phenomena” [31] . However, both the natural science and the subjective concept of time reveal something in common, namely, the moment of change of states, because if nothing changes, then time does not reveal itself. A. Bergson in this connection denies the “separate” existence of time and objects, asserting the reality of “duration.” Время является одной из форм проявления длительности в нашем представлении. Познание времени доступно лишь интуиции. А. Бергсон: «Ведь наша длительность не является сменяющими друг друга моментами: тогда постоянно существовало бы только настоящее, не было бы ни продолжения прошлого в настоящем, ни эволюции, ни конкретной длительности. Длительность — это непрерывное развитие прошлого, вбирающего в себя будущее и разбухающего по мере движения вперед.» [32]
Схожие представления развиваются в столь различных философских направлениях, как Диалектический материализм (время как форма существования материи) и вфеноменологии. Время уже отождествляется с бытием (например, в работе Хайдеггера «Бытие и время», 1927) и его противоположностью уже становится не вечность, но небытие. Онтологизация времени приводит к его осознанию как экзистенциального феномена.
Как в классической, так и в релятивистской физике для отсчёта времени используется временна́я координата пространства-времени (в релятивистском случае — также и пространственные координаты), причём (традиционно) принято использовать знак «+» для будущего, а знак «-» — для прошлого. Однако смысл временно́й координаты в классическом и релятивистском случае различен (см. Ось времени).
Время в астрономии и навигации связано с суточным вращением земного шара; для отсчёта используются несколько родов времени.
Main article: Time units
Title | Duration |
Gigagod | 1,000,000,000 years |
Millennium (Millennium) | 1000 years |
Century, century | 100 years |
Indict | 15 years |
Decade | 10 years |
Year | 365/366 days |
Quarter | 3 months - 1 / 4 year |
Month | ≈ 3 decades - 28-31 days, but most often use 30 days |
Decade | 10 days |
A week | 7 days |
Six days | 6 days |
Five days | 5 days |
Day | 1 / 7 weeks |
Hour | 1 / 24 days |
Minute | 1 / 60 hours |
Second | 1 / 60 minutes |
Third | 1 / 60 seconds |
Santisekund | 10 −2 seconds |
Millisecond | 10 −3 seconds (bullet movement in the short section) |
Microsecond | 10 −6 seconds (isthmus behavior when tearing off a drop) |
Nanosecond | 10 −9 seconds (diffusion of vacancies on the crystal surface) |
Picosecond | 10 −12 seconds (col. *** of the crystal lattice, formation and breaking of chemical bonds) |
Femtosecond | 10 -15 seconds (*** stake of the atoms, the EM field in the light wave) |
Attosecond | 10 −18 seconds (period of the EM colou *** of the X-ray range, electron dynamics of the inner shells of many-electron atoms) |
Septosecond | 10 −21 seconds (dynamics of nuclear reactions) |
Yoktosekunda | 10 −24 seconds (birth / decay of unstable elementary particles) |
In geology
In history
In the Internet
Standards
Current Time Means (Autonomous)
Time Interlay Playback Tools
Means for measuring time intervals
Various calibrated instruments are used to measure time. They have a means for reproducing time intervals - a stable pulse generator (pendulum, quartz or other generator):
Centralized methods for determining the current time
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Introduction to Physics, Fundamentals
Terms: Introduction to Physics, Fundamentals