13. Theory and functions of the reference group

Reference group - a group to which the individual considers himself psychologically, while focusing on its values ​​and norms. This group serves as a kind of standard, a reference system for assessing oneself and others, as well as a source for the formation of social attitudes and value orientations of an individual.

The development of reference group theories is associated with such names as G. Hyman , T. Newcomb , M. Sheriff , G. Kelly , R. Merton, and others.

T. Shibutani notes that the concept of the reference group is widely used to explain a variety of phenomena: inconsistencies in the behavior of an individual in the context of a new social context, manifestations of juvenile delinquency, dilemmas of a marginal person, and conflicts.

The theories of the reference group are based on the ideas of J. Meade about the “generalized friend”.

The meaning of the “generalized other” is determined by the fact that it is through it that the influence of society, of the social process on the individual and his thinking is carried out.

The development of the main provisions of the modern theory of the reference group begins with the 40s. XX century.

The term “reference group” was introduced by the American social psychologist G. Hyman in 1942 in a study of the individual’s perceptions of his property status as compared with the status of other people. G. Hyman used the concept of “reference group” to designate a group of people with whom the subject compared himself in determining his status.

The result of the comparison was the subject's self-assessment of their status.

Later, the concept of “reference group” was used by T. Newcomb to designate a group “to which an individual identifies himself psychologically” and therefore shares its goals and norms and focuses on them in his behavior.

The formation of attitudes is a “function of a negative or positive attitude of an individual towards a particular group or groups”.

T. Newcoms highlighted positive and negative reference groups.

The first are understood to be such groups, norms and orientations, which are accepted by an individual and which cause him to strive to be accepted by these groups.

A negative reference group is considered to be such a group that causes an individual to strive to oppose it and of which he does not want to consider himself a member.

M. Sheriff emphasized the importance of the reference group due to the fact that its norms are transformed into a reference system not only for self-assessment, but also for the assessment of social life phenomena, for the formation of their own picture of the world.

The famous American sociologist R. Merton made a significant contribution to the development of the problem of the reference group in his work in 1950, which was devoted to the results of a study of the social attitudes and behavior of American soldiers.

In the theories of the reference group there is no clear classification, but it is recognized by all that a variety of groups can act as a reference group: external groups and membership groups, real and ideal groups, large and small groups, etc.

Each individual has several reference groups to which he orients.

In 1952, G. Kelly summarized previous studies in the field of the theory of the reference group of G. Hyman, T. Newcomb, M. Sheriff, and R. Merton.

He notes that the term “reference group” refers to two types of different relations between an individual and a group.

These relationships are associated, on the one hand, with motivational, and on the other, with perceptual processes.

On this basis, G. Kelly identifies the functions of the reference group: normative and comparative-evaluative .

The first function is to set certain standards of behavior and force individuals to follow them.

These standards of behavior are called group norms, so he designated this function of the reference group as normative.

The second function of the reference group is that it is the benchmark or starting point for comparison, by which an individual can evaluate himself and others, which is why it acts as a comparative assessment function.

Kelly notes that both functions are often integrated in the sense that they can be performed by the same group: both the membership group and the external group to which the individual aspires to become a member or to which he identifies himself psychologically.

To confirm this position, G. Kelly refers to the example given by R. Merton of the study of the social attitudes of soldiers - front-line soldiers and newbie soldiers who arrived in the front-line unit.

The study showed that the social attitudes of many newcomers after staying in this division have changed significantly in the direction of greater similarity to the attitudes of the front-line soldiers.

One of the manifestations of the difference between the normative and comparative-evaluative functions of the reference group is that with the normative function it is important for an individual to know the attitude towards himself of the normative reference group.

As for the comparative-evaluative function of the reference group, here the opinion of the group with which the individual compares himself or others does not matter to him, if only because the comparative reference group may not have any idea about it at all.

In this situation, unlike the normative reference group, the individual is, as it were, “self-sanctioning,” that is, he evaluates himself and others on the basis of a certain standard that serves as a starting point for comparison. R. Merton singled out the conditions under which the individual would rather choose not the membership group, but the external group as a normative reference group:

1) if the group does not provide sufficient prestige to its members, then in these conditions they will tend to choose the external group, which has greater prestige than their own, as a reference group;

2) the more isolated an individual is in his group, the lower his status in it is, the more likely it is that he will select an external group as a reference group;

3) the more social mobility in society and, consequently, the more opportunities for an individual to change his social status and group membership, the more likely it is that he will choose a group with a higher social status as a reference group.