Lecture
Basic concepts:
ethics; morality and ethics; traditionalism; ascetic life; non-individualistic ethics; Brahman; Mayan; sansara; karma; nirvana; Buddhism; Jainism; yoga; Confucianism; jen; shu; whether; knowledge; "Noble husband"; dao; legism; secular ethics; rationalistic ethics; sage; individualistic ethics; the problem of true good; the problem of attitude to pleasures; the problem of acquiring virtues; sophists; relativism; Socrates; Socratic schools; Kirenica; cynics; Plato; Aristotle; Jesus Christ; Vera; hope; love; Augustine the Blessed; theocentrism; theodicy; T. Gobbs; J.-J. Russo; R. Descartes; B. Spinoza; D. Yum; K.A. Helvetius; E.Sheftsbury; “The theory of rational egoism”; I. Kant; categorical imperative; K. Marx; A. Schopenhauer; F. Nietzsche; A. Kamyu; J.P. Sartre; M. Gandhi; M.L. King; "Ethics of non-violence."
Socio-cultural background of the ancient Indian ethics .
A common literary source for the culture of ancient India was the Vedas : a collection of religious texts, hymns, ritual formulas. In this regard, the ethical tradition as a whole was formed as a religious one.
The ancient Indian society was a model of a traditional varna (caste) social structure. Since the lifetime change of the varna status was not feasible for the individual, the “teaching about a correct life” prescribed him socially - a careful implementation of the customs and traditions of his caste, and in the spiritual context - a desire beyond the limits of material-sensual reality. Reincarnation (rebirth in the new body) was considered a way to overcome the caste limitations.
Features of ancient Indian ethics , due to the above socio-cultural prerequisites:
1) traditionalism, i.e. continuity of ethical tradition, the preservation over the centuries of the categorical apparatus and the general system of world perception;
2) the religious nature of the overwhelming majority of ethical teachings;
3) ascetic life, i.e. abstaining from sensual pleasures was considered the most preferable "way of a good life";
4) non-individualistic value orientation of the individual, according to which the task of the individual is to dissolve in the spiritual origin .
The basic concepts of the ancient Indian ethical tradition:
· Brahman - the spiritual principle of the world;
Maya - the material world, all physical, sensual, representing the “great illusion”;
· Sansara - the “wheel of rebirth”, a concept denoting the idea of posthumous reincarnation, reincarnation;
· Karma - in ethics: the law of equitable retribution, which determines the nature of reincarnation;
· Nirvana - the extinction of sensuality, oblivion of maya, deliverance from samsara, the cessation of rebirth and fusion with the brahman, "supreme bliss."
The main teachings in the ethics of ancient India.
Buddhism. The ethical doctrine of Buddhism is based on the "four noble truths":
· Life is evil and suffering;
· The cause of suffering is our desires and thirst for life;
· To get rid of suffering, you need to get rid of desires;
· “The eightfold way of salvation” leads to deliverance from desires, which already at the first stage suggests: refraining from lying, from causing evil to the living, from stealing, from sensual pleasures of selfish motives and concentrating on one’s own personality. Buddhism does not imply hard asceticism, preferring the “middle way”.
Jainism was distinguished by extreme fanaticism in the performance of ascetic precepts. It was supposed to literally follow the requirement “not to cause evil to the living”, not only to avoid sensual pleasures, but also to constantly exhaust the body with ascetic exercises in order to sever any connection with material reality.
Yoga has focused on the psychophysical methods of purifying the soul in order to achieve complete self-control. At the first stage of yoga, the implementation of 5 principles was assumed: non-violence, truthfulness, chastity, a ban on theft and property. The second level of self-improvement required the implementation of 5 rules: purity, satisfaction, asceticism, study of the Vedas and devotion to God.
Socio-cultural background of ancient Chinese ethics .
The basic text of the ancient Chinese culture is “ The Book of Changes ” (“Y Ching”), according to which the universe is based on two equal origins ( Yang and Yin ), which are combined in various ways, forming 64 combinations of states of the world. As a result, the Chinese tradition is not to the definition of a minimum of ethical principles, but to the creation of diverse specific recommendations for all occasions.
The state formed early in ancient China was a bureaucratic pyramid of officials, the very membership of which gave the individual moral status. The acquisition and enhancement of a person’s social (and moral) status was made possible by passing state exams. Thus, people from the lower strata of society received the potential for social and spiritual advancement. It is natural that the “right way of life” in this tradition was associated with the acquisition of social knowledge and social success of the individual.
Features of ancient Chinese ethics :
1) extreme worship of tradition and respect for elders as the main moral precepts;
2) ethics is not a system of theoretical principles, but a set of specific recipes for behavior, drawn up in ritual ;
3) the socio-political nature of ethics, the main problem of which was the relationship of man and society.
The main teachings in the ethics of ancient China .
Confucianism . Founder - Kun Fu-tzu (V century. BC). The main text is “Lun yu” (“Conversations and statements”).
The central concept of Confucianism is jen (“humanity”). Ren suggests shu - “reciprocity.” Mutual humanity is embodied in the “golden rule of morality”: what you don’t want yourself, don’t do that to others, and is realized in whether (“ritual”). However, mutual humanity does not imply equality between people, but a fair hierarchy. The criterion of elevation in it is knowledge (Confucian canons, ancient texts and, of course, ritual). The ideal of Confucianism is the “ noble husband ” who cares about the observance of social rules and rituals; he is opposed to a "low man" who thinks only of personal gain. Noble people should set an example to the people, a moral example that is much more effective than legal coercion will contribute to the effectiveness of government.
Taoism (VI-III centuries. BC). Legendary founder - Lao Tzu. The main text is “Tao Te Ching” (“The Book of Dao and Te”).
The central concept of Taoism - Tao ("way") - is an impersonal world law by which all things move and a person must move. To live according to dao means “to follow naturalness”, not to distort the order of things in the world by your actions, to follow the principle of non-doing ( w -wei). Inaction does not mean doing nothing but special harmonious actions that are absolutely adequate to the diverse manifestations of dao in a particular situation. One should not actively “do good,” and even more to do evil, since both distort the natural order of things. The next tao does not “do good,” but naturally radiates good, just as the sun radiates light without setting a goal for itself.
Legism , or the school of "lawyers" (IV-III centuries. BC). The main representative is Han Fei Tzu.
Legism considered morality based on “li” to be an unreliable means of government and preferred the law (“fa”) as such. Compliance with the law is based on coercion and punishment. The absolutization of the role of law in society can be interpreted both as a totalitarian suppression of the personality by the state machine, and as an ideology of the rule of law, where everyone is equal before the law.
Socio-cultural background of the ethics of ancient Greece.
The creation of the foundations of scientific knowledge can be called a specific feature of ancient Greek culture. Another feature was the formation of slave democracy as a form of social life. These prerequisites led to:
Features of ancient Greek ethics:
1) secular , non-religious ethics, based in their constructions on the ideals of natural science;
2) rationalistic ethics, which considers the mind the best leader of moral life;
3) the moral ideal is a sage , i.e. a person with a full mind;
4) individualistic ethics, according to which the task of the individual is to maximize self-disclosure of their capabilities . Most ethical teachings implied that such self-disclosure is in favor of the policy, individual ethics were in harmony with the social.
The main problems of ancient Greek ethics :
1) the problem of true good : how to create a hierarchy of benefits in the life of a person so that it meets moral criteria;
2) the problem of attitude to pleasures : the allocation of preferential morally pleasures, the definition of the status of pleasures when building a moral life;
3) the problem of acquiring virtues , i.e. positive moral qualities, bringing a person to the true good. The most revered virtues were wisdom, courage, moderation and justice.
The problems identified have been resolved in a number of exercises.
The main teachings of ancient Greek ethics .
Sophists , began ethical reflections with the fact that doubted the existence of generally valid morality. The relativity of human judgments about well-being, happiness and the meaning of life prompted them to proceed to the analysis of moral phenomena as opposed to the ordinary uncritical assimilation of morality as certain obvious rules. The relativism of the Sophists, their reasoning about the relativity of moral norms, destroyed the dogmatic ideas about morality, but did not contain a positive moral program.
Socrates, in contrast to the sophists, believed that the opinions of different people about good are relative in comparison with the true concept of good. The task of the individual is “to know oneself”, i.e. move from "opinions about good" to the knowledge of good , which is acquired through reason . The famous "Socratic dialogues" show how the mind can clarify to an understanding of the true, and therefore the only and universal morality. Unless knowing the true path of life, will anyone go immoral? So for Socrates, being wise and being moral is one and the same. Immorality is a form of madness. All people want good, so no one does evil at will, evil is a mistake in judgment, leading, like every mistake to unhappiness.
Socratic schools inherited from the rationalist ethics of Socrates the idea of achieving happiness through wisdom , however, diverged from the specific interpretation of this moral program. Cyrenaica was considered the highest good pleasure, and sensual pleasures preferred spiritual. The reason for this is to avoid suffering associated with an excess of pleasures. The cynics (the most famous of which was Diogenes of Sinop) identified the highest good with inner freedom , including freedom from pleasure. The ascetic way of life of Diogenes became the way of his individualistic expression, which differed in meaning from religious asceticism.
Plato - a student of Socrates, who developed the idea of his teacher about the existence of absolute good. According to Plato, genuine goodness as an ideal pattern exists in the “world of ideas,” but on earth its pale similarities, copies, shadows. The task of the individual is to get to know the idea of good with the help of a reasonable part of the soul , which recalls that sample of good that she had once contemplated in the “world of ideas” when she herself was an idea. Sensual pleasures obscure the rational part of the soul, so they should not be abused. Plato's individual ethics is complemented by a social one: the theory of the ideal state, whose very structure strengthens the virtues of citizens.
Aristotle - a student of Plato - classified ancient knowledge, while highlighting the doctrine of virtues in a special doctrine - ethics, wrote a number of special ethical writings and, thus, constituted ethics as a philosophical discipline. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believes that ethics is not a science, comprehended only with the help of a reasonable part of the soul, but practical knowledge about how to become happy thanks to virtue . Virtue is achieved with the help of a reasonable part of the soul that controls passions (just as a driver drives hot horses), properly directed passions do not harm morality, but are its essential element. To be virtuous is to know the "middle ground" between extremes, one of which consists in the lack of any quality, and the other - in excess of the same quality (so courage is the middle between cowardice and insane courage). The main virtue of the rational part of the soul is wisdom, and an intellectually contemplative way of life, the life of a sage, is a moral ideal.
So, the ethical systems of the Ancient world formulated the basic paradigms in understanding the ethical issues.
Christianity brought tangible innovations to the interpretation of moral life:
1) in contrast to the ancient ideal of the sage, Christianity is addressed to ordinary people , "poor in spirit";
2) the world religion proclaimed the equality of people before God , developed the concept of " neighbor ";
3) the source of morality is the voice of God in the soul of the person (what is called conscience in modern morality), which allows it to make moral decisions on its own;
4) love is proclaimed the main motive of moral behavior (and not reason, as ancient ethics believed);
5) the holistic moral ideal is put forward - Jesus Christ, and not just a set of virtues, as it was in ancient Greek ethics;
6) the new moral ideal assumed new virtues : faith, hope, love, as well as humility, meekness, mercy, forgiveness. Thus, the idea of humanism as a compassionate attitude towards a particular person was first formulated.
Medieval ethics became a detailed intellectual justification of the Christian moral position. This revealed a number of ethical problems:
· The problem of justifying God for the evil that exists in the world, developed in the framework of theodicy (teaching about the justification of God);
· The problem of the relationship between divine grace and the free will of man in his moral behavior;
· The problem of soul salvation .
St. Augustine - a representative of the ethics of the Middle Ages. St. Augustine (IV-V cc.) Consistently solved these problems from a Christian position. His personal experience of converting to Christianity at the age of 33 became the basis for uncompromising adherence to the doctrine. According to Augustine, the source of morality is God, and only God. Such a position in ethics is called theocentric . The very will of God is morality. At the same time, God is not bound by any moral rules, otherwise there would be rules above God, and this is impossible by definition. Everything that comes from God is good, therefore our world is the best of all possible, and there is no real evil in it. Evil is treated by Augustine as a lack of good, spoiled good, less good in comparison with big and, finally, the human point of view on what is happening: what looks evil to man, in the totality of Divine plan turns into good. In general, the source of evil is not in God, but in man and his free will, in its misuse. The proper use of free will is to follow the will of God freely. The salvation of the soul, according to Augustine, is wholly dependent on Divine grace. From the point of view of ethics, it is paradoxical that the salvation of man is not directly connected with his earthly deeds, but is an act of unconditional divine mercy.
The prerequisites for the ethics of the New Age (17-19 centuries) were:
· Bourgeois commodity-money relations and the formation of a class of free entrepreneurs, which gave ethics bourgeois features;
· Mathematical natural science , whose methods were transferred to the humanities.
Features of the ethics of the New Time :
I. Following the pattern of the natural sciences, morality begins to emerge from human nature , in ethics such an approach is called naturalistic . Observations of human nature led the thinkers to the following questions:
a) human nature is good or evil:
· T. Gobbs believed that man is naturally evil , “man is a wolf”. The original state of humanity was the “war of all against all”, which was terminated by reason. In order to avoid self-destruction, people concluded a social contract , transferring to the state the function of curbing the natural malice of individuals with the help of law and force;
· Ж.-Ж.Руссо полагал, что человек от природы добр , но его портит цивилизация, насаждая в нем неестественные потребности и страсти, в частности, привязанность к собственности. Естественное добротолюбие может быть воссоздано с помощью общественного договора , когда под защитой правового государства люди смогут позволить себе следовать своей природе.
б) нравственная природа человека является разумной или чувственной:
· Р.Декарт и Б.Спиноза , следуя рационалистической традиции, полагали, что человек в морали подчиняется разуму , от степени совершенства последнего зависит нравственное развитие человека;
· Д.Юм, А.Смит, Э.Шефтсбери относились к сенсуалистической традиции в этике и придерживались взгляда, что в основе нравственного поведения лежат нравственные чувства : благожелательность, симпатия, взаимность.
Ii. Этика Нового времени обосновала самоценность человеческой личности (под которой понимался по преимуществу буржуазный индивид), автономию ее морального поведения. При этом обнаружилась проблема: как совместить эгоизм автономного индивида с требованиями общественной морали . Были предложены следующие варианты решения:
· Т.Гоббс : обуздать эгоизм индивида с помощью государственной морали;
· Ж.-Ж.Руссо : вернуться к естественности, при этом автономия личности сохранится, а эгоизм исчезнет;
· Б.Мандевиль показал в «Басне о пчелах», что общественное благоденствие (в буржуазном обществе) существует благодаря порокам отдельных индивидов (стремление к обогащению развивает производство и финансы, честолюбие способствует выдвижению государственных мужей и т.п.). Подлинная же мораль была бы гибельной для общественного процветания, поэтому она становится лишь формой общественного притворства, под покровом которой эгоисты осуществляют свои интересы;
· « Теория разумного эгоизма » ( К.А.Гельвеций ) исходила из того, что каждый человек от природы эгоист. Но разумный эгоист понимает, что следовать общественной морали выгодно ему самому , поскольку выполнение человеком нравственных норм гарантирует, что люди, выполнят такие же нормы по отношению к нему (подобно тому, как это происходит по буржуазной экономической схеме товар—деньги — товар).
Этика Нового времени стала идейным обоснованием Великой Французской буржуазной революции.
Заслугой И.Канта (1724-1804) является создание теории морали , определение ее специфики по сравнению с другими социальными и духовными явлениями. Кант выступил против натурализма : мораль не вытекает из природы человека, мораль вменяется ему в обязанность, главное ее понятие — долг . Но как возможно, чтобы человек, который по природе своей следует склонностям и стремится к счастью, исполнял долг?
Для ответа на этот вопрос Кант воспользовался своей философской конструкцией, согласно которой бытие разделяется на два слоя: « вещи-для-нас » и « вещи-в-себе ».
I. Man as a “ thing-for-us”, i.e. in the realm of appearances , it looks like an ordinary creature striving for happiness. At the same time, he is not free, bound by circumstances and commits legal acts, but not moral ones. To legal include:
· Legal acts committed for fear of legal punishment;
· Expedient acts committed from the desire to benefit;
· Decent actions committed out of respect for public opinion.
All legal actions are performed not for their own sake, but for the sake of something else to which they lead, they are not self-valuable.
Ii.Man as a “ thing-in-itself”, i.e. in essence , it is free to commit its own moral actions. After all, the one who lives according to the law generated by his own essence is free.
In this stratum of his being, man is able to follow duty as his own inner law . Moral debt is imputed to the individual not from the outside, but from the inside.
The unified and unconditional law of duty, rooted in pure practical reason, Kant called the categorical imperative (categorical requirement). In the retelling he says: act so that your motives could become the principle of universal legislation , i.e. the motives that could become the universal norm are moral. We are talking about the universality of motives, but not the actions that occur in the world of "things for us." Thus, making a moral choice, we choose this and the fate of mankind.
Моральный закон, согласно Канту, имеет приоритет перед всеми другими видами норм, в том числе перед религиозными. Нравственное поведение человека не может зависеть от загробного воздаяния (иначе оно будет легальным), оно должно быть автономным. Есть Бог или нет (а это по Канту недоказуемо и неопровержимо), это в морали ничего не меняет. Мораль не вытекает из религии . Зато сама религия вытекает из морали, ведь в морали мы ведем себя так, как будто есть Бог, который гарантирует истинность нравственных правил и воздаяние за их исполнение. А поскольку фактически наблюдается следствие (мораль), значит, есть и причина этого (Бог). Таково моральное доказательство бытия Бога , выдвинутое И.Кантом
В этике XIX века можно выделить две традиции в трактовке этических проблем:
I. Социологизм понимает мораль как по преимуществу социальное явление, порождаемое общественными отношениями . Примером такого подхода к нравственным явлениям может служить учение К. Маркса . Согласно немецкому философу, основой общественной жизни является общественное производство, способ которого определяет отношения собственности, на основе которых складываются все другие общественные отношения, в том числе нравственные.
А поскольку производительные силы и производственные отношения исторически изменяются, то и мораль не вечна, а исторически и классово относительна. Способом изменения нравственных отношений в социуме считалось революционное изменение отношений собственности.
Ii. Иррационализм , представленный, в частности, «философией жизни», исходит из того, что стихия жизни не подвластна человеку и его разуму, но именно она является первичной основой бытия. Данная философская позиция послужила предпосылкой двух самобытных, но существенно различных этических построений.
В произведении «Мир как воля и представление» немецкий философ А.Шопенгауэр обозначил свою исходную позицию в главе
«О ничтожестве и горестях жизни». Мировая воля-к-жизни проявляется в человеке как ненасытные желания, а это неминуемо ведет к страданию. Люди должны быть несчастны, и они несчастны. В такой ситуации возможны две линии поведения:
· некоторые люди стремятся преодолеть свое страдание путем созерцания чужого, они яростно вгрызаются в жизнь, надеясь все-таки удовлетворить свои желания, от чего их воля-к-жизни возрастает и страдания возобновляются на новом витке;
· в других же людях рождается сострадание сначала к себе, а затем и к другим; в этом сострадании — основа нравственности.
В трактовке другого немецкого философа — Ф.Ницше — жизнь не мучает человека, а дает ему первобытную радость бытия. В людях жизненная мощь проявляется как ненасытная воля-к-власти (не только политической, но власти в широком всепоглощающем смысле).
С этой позиции Ницше подверг критике всю традиционную мораль (христианскую и буржуазную): она выступает ограничителем для воли-к-власти, является формой слабости и порождена людьми худшего сорта. Для доказательства выдвинутого тезиса Ницше исследует происхождение морали и находит, что изначально моральным называлось все то, что исходило от высших, сильных, благородных сословий, а безнравственным называлось все плебейское. Со временем христианство и цивилизация исказили естественный порядок вещей, насадили «мораль послушания», ведущую человечество к упадку. Эта «мораль слабых» должна быть отброшена и ее место занять аристократическая мораль сверхчеловека . Трактовки последней в культуре ХХ века оказались весьма различны: от фашистской до неохристианской (например, у Н.А.Бердяева).
The ethics of the twentieth century can be called the intellectual reaction to social disasters that occurred in this century. Two world wars and regional conflicts, totalitarian regimes and terrorism make one think about the very possibility of ethics in a world so frankly alien to good. Of the great variety of diverse ethical teachings created in the twentieth century, we consider only two. Their representatives not only constructed theoretical models of morality, but also made practical normative conclusions from them.
I. Existentialism ("philosophy of existence") put forward a theoretical thesis: existence precedes essence . With reference to human existence, this means that human existence is not a development of some of its predetermined essence; on the contrary, man, in the course of his existence, acquires an essence that is never complete.
For Albert Camus , a French writer and philosopher, the starting point was the topic of the absurdity of human existence, comprehensively examined in the essay The Myth of Sisyphus. The catastrophes of this world are absurd, but our everyday, ordinary existence is no less absurd. Under such circumstances, it is natural for a person to wonder if he should not commit suicide. Camus’s answer to this question is negative: suicide only increases the absurdity of what is happening. Our position in the world is similar to that of Sisyphus, who rolls the heavy stone of life without hope of ever achieving a result. While Sisyphus curses the gods who have forced him to do this meaningless work, and hopes that things will change, the gods laugh at him. It is necessary to achieve absolute clarity in understanding our fate and stop hoping, then rolling the stone will become a matter for Sisyphus himself, it will be filled with meaning, thanks to his own effort, he will change the attitude of his consciousness to what is happening. The fate of a person, like Sisyphus, is tragic, he must ethically courageously accept it and, despite everything, personally insist that moral values (in particular, the meaning of life) are possible.
J.P.Sartr believed that man, in principle, leads an unauthentic existence , he is "abandoned into the world", alien to his innermost aspirations. In an unauthentic world, a person acquires the authenticity of existence only by making a choice . However, all the traditional pillars of moral choice (family, religion, society) have lost their meaning, the individual turned out to be "thrown into freedom." It is the “boundary situations” (situations on the verge of life and death) that most clearly reveal our true “me”. The choice in them is made absolutely individually, at your own peril and risk, without guarantees of moral approval. An absolutely free person is fully responsible for his actions and their consequences. Such a global responsibility makes human existence full of Care, Anxiety, Despair. While committing acts chosen as moral ones, a person cannot hope for success, and yet he must commit them in order to gain authenticity of existence.
Ii. "Ethics of non-violence." Any ethics considers non-violence necessary, the specificity of the “ethics of non-violence” in the twentieth century is that it is not only a theory, but also a social practice . An example of the combination of the theory and practice of non-violence is the activity of M. Gandhi for the liberation of India from British colonialism and the struggle of ML King for the rights of blacks in the United States.
Since violence gives rise to counter-violence, it is an obviously ineffective method of solving any problems. Non-violence is not passivity, but special non-violent actions (sit-ins, marches, hunger strikes, distribution of leaflets and performance in the media to popularize their position — advocates of non-violence developed dozens of similar methods). Only morally strong and courageous people who, thanks to the belief in their own right, are not able to respond with a blow to a blow, are capable of carrying out such actions. The motive for non-violence is love for enemies and faith in their best moral qualities. Enemies should be convinced of wrongfulness, inefficiency and immorality of coercive methods and reach a compromise with them. “Ethics of non-violence” considers morality not as weakness, but as human strength, ability to achieve goals.
The study of the history of ethical teachings should lead to an understanding of the continuity of their inner meanings, as well as to help a person to determine his own fundamental ethical issues.
1. What is the first noble truth of Buddhism?
2. What does Taoism mean in Taoism?
3. What Chinese philosopher belongs to the statement: "A noble husband thinks about morality, a low person thinks about how to get a better job"?
4. What representative of the Socratic school believed that if the sum of life sufferings exceeded the sum of life pleasures, should one commit suicide?
5. Who developed the doctrine of virtue as the "middle ground" between extremes?
6. What ancient Greek philosopher said the statement: “Nothing contributes to human virtue as much as the legislation and the foundation of states”?
7. Love for someone in Christian morality in the first place in importance?
8. What, according to St. Augustine, is the source of evil on earth?
9. What determines the salvation of man, according to St. Augustine?
10. Which of the philosophers adhered to the ethics of the “theory of rational egoism”?
11. What is the essence of the “theory of rational egoism” in ethics?
12. Man is naturally inclined to good. What philosopher did not agree with this statement?
13. Man is by nature alien to morality. What philosopher did not agree with this statement?
14. "Any theory of morality has so far been, ultimately, the product of a given economic situation of society." Who is the author of this statement, and to what direction in ethics does he relate?
15. What historical forms of morality criticized, and which ones approved F. Nietzsche in his works?
16. What is the concept of I. Kant considered the main morality?
17. What is the wording of I. Kant's “categorical imperative”?
18. What moral sense did A. Schopenhauer consider the basis of morality?
19. What is the famous essay by Albert Camus on the philosophical problem of suicide?
20. Why does the “ethics of non-violence” consider it necessary to renounce the use of violence?
продолжение следует...
Часть 1 2. The history of ethical teachings
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Ethics
Terms: Ethics