Lecture
Basic concepts:
taboo; customs; an eye for an eye principle; traditional morality; the principle of patriarchy; loyalty to tradition; respect for elders; honoring father; collectivism principle; “The golden rule of morality”; principle of diligence; moral hierarchy of types of labor; principle of patriotism; fight against enemies; love for your land; the sacred feeling of the motherland, patriotism; serving the state; commitment to everything national; military ethos; fidelity; sisterhood; friendship; courage; cowardice; politeness; etiquette; generosity; monotheism; knight; individualization of moral life; rational motives; equality of nature; human values; principle of individualism; money; "self made man"; proletarian moral model; internationalism; ideology; achievements of Soviet morality; shortcomings of Soviet morality.
Taboos were the first social regulators of primitive society, they were bans on certain actions based on the indisputable authority of tradition (rather than on a logical explanation) and based on harsh physical sanction (murder or expulsion from the clan). Taboos differ from morality in that :
· They prohibit, but do not prescribe, positive behavior;
· They are collective in nature and are not respected individually;
· They do not require awareness and justification.
The main ones are taboos:
· Food (meat of a sacred animal, food of the leader, etc.);
· Marriages between close relatives;
· To words (sacred names, and eventually maternal words, that is, describing the universe in terms of sexual intercourse).
Customs are the next level of social regulation. In content, they are often similar to morality, but differ from it in the way they regulate behavior:
1) the custom is distributed in the local community , and the norms of morality claim to universal value;
2) custom is a specific recommendation , and the rules of morality are formulated collectively;
3) the custom is justified by the argument “so accepted” , the moral act is justified by the argument “this is good”;
4) when assessing the behavior according to custom, the motives of the act are not taken into account , while in the moral evaluation of the act, consideration of the motives is obligatory;
5) the observance of custom is followed by public opinion , moral self-control of behavior is exercised by the conscience of the individual;
6) if the custom is not fulfilled, it disappears, and if the norms of morality are not observed, a feeling of guilt and repentance arises, i.e. moral experiences.
The main customs form the calendar cycle (the meeting of spring - the holiday of the first sheaf - dozhinki - carols) and the life cycle (native - wedding - funeral).
The principle of exchange governed relations between primitive communities (taboos and customs extended only to “our own”):
1) “Eye for an eye” is a negative variant of such a relationship. Action on this principle involved retribution:
· Symmetrical (for the damaged eye to take away the eye, and not the whole life);
· Response (performed in response to the activity of neighbors);
· Collective (“by the whole world” to revenge not only on a specific culprit, but also on all relatives by blood — “blood feud”).
2) Donation is a positive exchange option between communities. The ceremonial donation assumed that the neighbors would later reciprocate, and to a greater extent. Thus, if the principle of "an eye for an eye" limited the uncontrolled spread of evil, the principle of donation suggested an increase in the volume of good.
Traditional morality is historically the first and fundamental form of human morality inherent in all pre-industrial societies . Its content can be considered by summarizing it on the basis of the following principles.
The patriarchal culture was based on the domination of the male principle — it was to the man that the basic moral requirements were presented. The first of these is loyalty to a tradition dating back to the cult of ancestors. In relation to the dead, it was possible to judge the morality of a person; at the same time, the very nature of the burial of a person was determined by his moral merit. The logical consequence of honoring ancestors was respect for elders .
Patriarchal morality was prescribed to younger tribesmen and family members to honor their father as a boss (and later the boss as their father), honor their elder brother, and generally every elder brother.
The criterion of morality of women in the patriarchal culture was the observance of the rules of sexual morality : the preservation of virginity before marriage and loyalty to her husband in marriage.
For traditional morality, community, and not a person, is an absolute value . The individual here identifies his interests with the welfare of the social group. The moral status of the group is transferred to the individual , i.e. belonging to a glorious family, family, country, or profession makes a person more morally meaningful. At the same time, the merits of the individual are attributed to the group , the achievements of one cause the whole society pride and a sense of belonging to his deeds. A person should always remember that he will be judged on the virtues and vices of the whole group, and therefore it is unacceptable to disgrace her with his behavior.
Unity and reciprocity in the community were supported by the “golden rule of morality” :
· What you don’t want yourself, don’t do that to others (negative wording);
· Treat others the way you want them to treat you (positive wording).
The evaluation of labor in traditional morality is controversial.
On the one hand , earthly labor was contrasted with sacred ritual acts ; it appeared as a punishment, a low occupation . The noble classes of the traditional society (warriors, nobles, clergymen of non-Christian denominations) despised physical labor as a concern for personal well-being, opposing disinterested service to the “supreme”.
On the other hand , since the land in traditional culture has a sacred value, then work on it is considered a highly moral occupation . Labor in the community is a way to strengthen collectivism, and the one who does not work sits on the neck of others. In addition, without a useful occupation, a person loses his orientation in life, “goes astray,” leads a hectic lifestyle. And vice versa, joining a profession means meaningful life choice. For a woman, hard work is the key to her chastity: homework prevents frivolous entertainment.
Thus, in the traditional culture of the moral hierarchy of types of labor . In the first place was the work of the peasant, in the second - the craftsman, if he did not produce items for sale. Next was the trade, which was assessed as dishonest, but the most shamefully moral is usury. Thus, everything connected with the sphere of exchange and commodity-money relations, received mainly negative moral evaluation.
The principle of patriotism has a complex content, some of its aspects may not be consistent with others.
1. The original meaning of the word patriotism (in Latin patria - homeland, pater - father) implies loyalty to the tradition of fathers , adherence to the values of ancestors. Patriotism is a form of connection of times, a way of self-determination of an individual in a series of generations. Understanding which kind you belong to is patriotism.
2. Belonging to "their" exists within the framework of opposition to "alien". Therefore, patriotism is often understood as a struggle against enemies , and patriotic education is carried out as a military-patriotic one. In this aspect, patriotism reveals its aggressive tone.
3. Since traditional communities were tied to their land, both economically and spiritually, patriotism implies love for their land , which is expressed in the work on it (interchange with the principle of hard work) and in protecting it.
4. Any values of a traditional society (including, as already noted, land) had a sacred rationale. In this regard, patriotism is a sacred sense of the Motherland , similar to a religious one. Homeland is not a historical-geographical community, but a symbolic reality in relation to which a person carries out service . Patriotism here is not the earthly egoistic attachment to everything “its”, but attachment to the highest moral values (freedom, meaning of life), which the Motherland personifies.
5. Significant innovations in the content of patriotism occur under the influence of the state. Within the framework of the dominant ideology, patriotism is understood as a service to the state . Here love is supposed not just for the country, but for its social and political structure. Under the influence of the struggle with the existing political system, an alternative variant of patriotism can be formed, where the patriot is a fighter for the liberation of the Motherland from unrighteous statesmen.
6. Patriotism can also be interpreted as a commitment to everything national (“love for one’s people”), although the protrusion of the ethnic factor in the content of patriotism can lead to both moral revival and moral savagery of a people.
Contrary to the conventional notion of morality as a sphere of peaceful and humane, many concepts of traditional morality were formed in military teams. The codes of conduct established in this environment are called the military ethos .
Ethos of warriors is based on the idea that this social group is chosen among others, about war as a noble occupation, about morality as the right force (military victory is understood as evidence of moral correctness). The military community is built according to the family model, where the leader acts as a father, in relation to which the soldier remains faithful , similar to the patriarchal one. Inter-related relations of fraternity and rivalry are established between colleagues. Brotherhood as the establishment of pseudo-clan bonds is a way to adequately leave the battle, fraternizing with a rival, or a way to strengthen relations within the military squad. Brotherhood became a prototype of such a highly valued relationship in ethics as friendship . Rivalry in the military environment takes place among "their", equally noble, for the acquisition of personal merit. Personal glory and honor are achieved through feats of arms, so courage , courage, courage are necessary virtues of the military ethos, and cowardice is the most contemptible vice. In order to morally rationalize rivalry among “our own”, rules of politeness and refined etiquette are developed to avoid situations that could be regarded as an attempt on honor. The morality of warriors differs significantly from the general array of traditional morality. As already mentioned, the warriors treated with contempt. Since a military man is not attached to property, generosity has become his virtue. Warriors are characterized by directness, honesty, simplicity and clarity in determining the criteria of good and evil.
In general, it should be noted that the stability of traditional morality is associated with the cyclical nature of agricultural activities, its sustainable existence has made it the basis of all subsequent moral forms that, modifying the content of the tradition, layered on it.
World religions brought new moments to the moral life of mankind :
· Monotheism presupposes the uniqueness of God, before which all people appear as equal (archaic communities are hierarchically structured: the older - younger, men - women);
· The god of world religions is a spiritual god (as opposed to archaic anthropomorphic deities or deities merging with the elements of nature), which contributes to the promotion of moral spiritual values to the forefront of the regulatory system;
· God in monotheism appears as a person, respectively, and the believer must be a person , owner of a soul with a developed inner world;
· A person in world religions is interpreted as a “crown of creation”, moral norms dictate a humane attitude towards another person , who is understood as a “neighbor”. In traditional culture, as already noted, the main values were sacred, and in social practice the collective had value rather than individual. Humanism was not among the principles of traditional morality;
· The Holy Scriptures appeared with a clear fixation of norms , which allows them to be presented to the individual, to require their awareness and self-fulfillment in various situations.
World religions have transformed traditional morality . The categorical and motivational structure of moral consciousness has changed. Traditional actions are conceptualized in new categories (for example, traditional mutual assistance between people is interpreted in terms of "mercy" to "neighbor"). Traditional actions receive new motives (love, mercy, the cleansing of the soul from sin). Religious ideology deepens the content of traditional norms, emphasizes their motivation (requires not only “do not kill”, “do not steal”, but also “do not be angry”, “do not wish ...”). Traditional norms are sorted according to the provisions of religious doctrine, the most cruel ones are rejected, morals are softened .
In general, the regulation rises to a new, more complex level, implying the motivation of behavior with spiritual values, calculated on the individual, rather than on the community, putting forward uniform moral requirements, at least, to the co-religionists.
However, the potential of religious morality has historically remained little realized. Traditional morality assimilated religious values and interpreted them in the traditional way . Under the influence of traditional ideas, the content of religious morality has changed significantly, as medieval manners demonstrate.
The morals of the Middle Ages were formed on the basis of :
· Traditional morality;
· Religious morality;
· The influence of the social structure of the feudal society.
The social structure of the feudal society was a pyramid of estates with its own sets of rights and obligations, sins and virtues. According to the moral hierarchy of this society, there are noble people and people of mean birth. The task of the individual is to know his place in the hierarchy and fulfill duties that are appropriate to his social status.
Relations between the estates were built on the patriarchal principle of "fathers" and "children" : the lower ones should honor the higher ones, and the highest ones should take care of the lower ones. Such mutual responsibilities contributed to the moral cohesion of medieval society.
A typical example of a class moral sample is the moral code of a knight , which combines traditional, Christian and class features. A knight must be:
· Good kind ("noble");
· Faithful to his master;
· True to this word (votive);
· Brave;
· Noble in battle (this was facilitated by the rules of conducting fights);
· Generous.
The degree of conformity of the knight’s pattern to Christian values is relative. The knight did not think of the commoner as a "neighbor", he showed the mentioned virtues only in relation to the people of his class. Murder and robbery were not alien to military affairs. But to the extent that the knight was pious, appeared as a “warrior of Christ”, he was a Christian of his time. Moreover, the Middle Ages interpreted Christian truths not so much as the norms of mercy, but rather as values, the adherence to which will allow us to defeat our enemies on the battlefield.
Modernity (“modernity”) is a historical epoch following the epoch of traditional societies, the period of the formation of industrial societies and culture that is significantly different from the traditional one. In different countries, modernization has led to the construction of various social systems.
The capitalist mode of production has destroyed the social base of traditional morality (the community); both the value system and the very way of moral regulation of behavior have changed .
With the transition from an agrarian society to an industrial society, a change in the social structure takes place: communities and estates break up into separate individuals, society “atomizes”. As a result:
· An individual subject of moral regulation appears (in contrast to the collective subject of regulation characteristic of traditional morality);
· A personality appears capable of autonomous self-regulation on the basis of rational motives (and not emotional experience of the situation); possessing sound moral principles ;
· People are proclaimed equal by nature;
· The idea of universal human values is affirmed (which none of the preceding moral systems knew).
Thus, the method of moral regulation reaches a developed form inherent in modern morality.
В противовес коллективистским ориентациям традиционной нравственности утверждается принцип индивидуализма, который предполагает следование нравственным нормам, исходя из индивидуальных мотивов и соображений, что отличает данный принцип от эгоизма, предполагающего следование собственным интересам, независимо от норм морали.
Закономерно, что идеалом такого сообщества становится «человек, сделавший себя сам » (self made man). Если человек традиционной нравственности гордился тем, что ему досталось от предков или сообщества, буржуазный моральный субъект гордится собственными моральными достижениями, добродетелями, которые он воспитал в себе сам.
Принцип трудолюбия оказывается обязательным для всех членов общества, земной труд полностью реабилитируется. В свете идей протестантизма тщательное исполнение своих профессиональных обязанностей становится формой религиозного служения , реализацией Божественного призвания. Трудом здесь именуется все, что приносит практическую пользу , измеряемую деньгами.
Деньги в системе буржуазной морали трактуются как нравственная ценность . С одной стороны, от наличия денег зависит добродетель: финансовое благополучие позволяет индивиду воздерживаться от особо аморальных деяний. С другой стороны, добродетель способствует обогащению: честный и трудолюбивый человек обогатится благодаря усердию и позитивной реакции на него окружающих.
Принцип патриотизма , известный и в традиционной нравственности, получил в буржуазной морали новое наполнение (и даже сам термин был изобретен в период Великой французской революции). В период формирования национальных государств, Родина стала пониматься не как историко-культурная данность, доставшаяся человеку по наследству, но как предмет его мировоззренческого выбора. Органический патриотизм сменяется гражданским патриотизмом , который предполагает сознательное участие индивида в делах общества, свободно основанного на единстве интересов, активное участие в формировании социально-политического строя своего государства (с помощью выборов и прочих демократических механизмов).
Буржуазный нравственный образец представляет достижение в нравственном развитии человечества (автономная саморегуляция личности, развитое моральное сознание, общечеловеческие ценности). В то же время, буржуазная система нравственности, как и всякая другая, несовершенна (индивидуализм все-таки вырождается в эгоизм, деньги из нравственной ценности становятся заменителем нравственных ценностей).
Советская система нравственности может быть представлена как разновидность нравственности modernity при сохранении многих элементов традиционной нравственности. Поэтому в нравах советского общества можно выделить следующие составляющие :
1 . Образцы традиционной нравственности , что неудивительно для страны, экономика которой сохраняла аграрный характер почти до начала ХХ века, а проводимые модернизации оказались незаконченными или неудачными;
2. По способу регуляции советская мораль соответствовала критериям modernity , хотя по линии ценностей буржуазная и советская системы находились в открытой конфронтации. Проводимая политика по перемещению населения (миграция из деревни в город, направление людей на «стройки коммунизма», переселение народов) привела к исчезновению традиционных социальных структур (сословий, семей, общин). В СССР было провозглашено и осуществлено равноправие людей. Советский человек представлял собой индивидуального субъекта моральной регуляции , который руководствовался рациональными убеждениями (коммунистическими). Выработанные таким образом нравственные устои выдерживали почти любое жизненное испытание: человек продолжал держаться своей морали при любых обстоятельствах.
Общность советских людей была не локальной, как в традиционных обществах, а достаточно широкой, это была «вся страна», «пролетарии всех стран», «все прогрессивное человечество». Классовый характер морали считался преходящим, сущность же ее — общечеловеческой . Предполагалось, то коммунистическая мораль — это и есть будущая мораль всего человечества.
3. Пролетарский нравственный образец .
Поскольку пролетариат был провозглашен господствующим классом, то его нравственный образец получил широкое распространение. Он основывается на коллективизме , причем этот коллективизм эпохи modernity отличается от традиционного. Общность здесь является не органической, а механической, кроме того, интересы отдельного коллектива подчинены интересам более широкой общности (страны). Пролетариев характеризует солидарность с теми, кому «нечего терять, кроме своих цепей», отсутствие частной собственности стало предпосылкой равенства внутри этой социальной группы. Производственные условия закономерно приводят пролетария к принципу интернационализма , что представляет собой вторую после христианства историческую попытку утвердить моральное равенство между народами . Это не противоречило формированию принципа патриотизма , предполагавшего любовь к социалистической Родине . В целом пролетарский нравственный образец носит героический характер и напоминает некоторыми чертами нравственный образец рыцаря.
4. Марксистско-ленинская идеология, по функциям напоминающая религиозную . Обыденное моральное сознание (зачастую традиционное) оформлялось коммунистической идеологией с образованием таких понятий как « советский патриотизм», « социалистический коллективизм», « интернациональный долг», «честь коллектива » и. т.п.
Достижениями советской морали можно считать:
· высокое чувство долга, которое позволяло преодолевать личные склонности и внешние препятствия во имя нравственных целей;
· наличие нравственного идеала (коммунизм), предполагающего реализацию в земной жизни;
· неэгоистическую и бескорыстную мотивацию поступков;
· общечеловеческую ориентацию.
Недостатки советской морали являются оборотной стороной ее достоинств и неотделимы от них:
· смешивание собственно морального идеала с социально-политическим мешало проверять, морален ли сам политический идеал;
· попытки осуществлять моральную регуляцию с помощью политических механизмов и социальных институтов (партийных организаций, собраний трудового коллектива, товарищеских судов, профсоюзных комитетов), разрушали моральную саморегуляцию личности;
· некорректное решение проблемы моральных целей (коммунизм) и средств (репрессии), проводило к тому, что умение жертвовать собой оборачивалось принесением в жертву других людей;
· коллективизм вырождался в «подчинение личных интересов общественным».
В данном курсе историческое развитие нравственности рассмотрено как смена и взаимодействие исторических систем нравственности :
· архаической системы регуляции;
· традиционной нравственности;
· традиционной религиозной морали;
· нравственности modernity в буржуазном и советском вариантах.
Современное развитие человечества характеризуется взаимодействием нравственности modernity с традиционной нравственностью . При этом иногда традиционная нравственность модернизируется, а иногда ценности нравственности modernity усваиваются в рамках традиционного способа моральной регуляции. Становление постиндустриального, информационного общества породило тенденцию постмодернизации нравов , утверждение полного плюрализма нравственных ценностей при крайне неустойчивом механизме моральной регуляции. Реакцией на этот процесс стала фундаментализация морали , т.е. усиление консервативных сторон традиционной нравственности в тех странах и социальных слоях, которые не приемлют ценностей modernity.
1. What argument justifies behavior according to custom?
2. What types of taboos do you know?
3. To whom should be respected, according to traditional morality?
4. Which historical morality system
does not include the principle of diligence?
5. Which historical morality system
does not include the principle of patriotism?
6. Which historical morality system
does not include the principle of patriarchy?
7. Which historical morality system
does not include the principle of collectivism?
8. What is the historical morality system is called traditional?
9. What does the principle of individualism in ethics imply ?
10. What does the principle of collectivism in ethics imply ?
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Ethics
Terms: Ethics