Lecture
translation of the words "piritus" (Latin) and "pneuma" (Greek) in ancient philosophy and in the Bible, which means "moving air", "breath", "breath" (as a carrier of life); the soul as an entity that can temporarily or permanently leave the body; ghost; life itself (Goethe: "For life is love, and the life of life is spirit"); the essence of God: "God is spirit"; the very essence of the earth or the world; the spirit of the earth, the world spirit; ideological content arts; the universal nature of something, for example. Goethe's spirit, folk spirit, corporate spirit (see also Esprit). The currently used philosophical concept of spirit as opposed to nature (see Nature) developed during the period of romance and idealism, and especially with Hegel ("Spirit is revealed as a gigantic sign of the integral connecting heaven and earth, good and evil" - Dreyer). The spirit is not an adversary of the soul, as Klages considers, although the soul (as the concept of the vital energy of a person) is the carrier of the spirit, which undermines its strength. But at the same time, the spirit preserves and protects life, elevates, improves (“spiritualizes”) bodily activities. However, he can do it only by displacing life aspirations. Thus, the spirit violates the harmony of the organic and is opposed to the tendency of life to improve the human species by means of cruelty, which is to prevent weak species from participating in the continuation of the species. Sometimes he burdens the individual so much that body life begins to suffer: highly cultured families die out if their blood is not renewed at the expense of a sphere not burdened by the spirit (see also Resubing). The spirit appears in three forms of being: as the spirit of a separate individual (personal spirit), as a general spirit (objective spirit) and as an objectified spirit (a set of completed creations of the spirit). While the spiritual is so closely included in the process of the development of the organic that its development goes hand in hand with the latter and in general can be considered as inherited, the personal spirit is inherited only as an opportunity, as the ability to become one. He creates himself through spiritual work, which cannot stop until the end of his life. Therefore, the spiritual differences between people are much more than biological. The needs of the body and soul, the needs and motivations of people have a lot in common, and the soul responds to them according to a certain type, with psychological regularity. The spirit has its own laws for itself; it cannot be understood at all from psychology (as Klages tried to do). It is autonomous, and for it there are no knowable limits; the border of the transintelligibel (see Knowledge) is only a fundamental boundary and leaves each personal spirit a different sphere for its development. The personal spirit becomes itself due to the growing of the individual into the realm of the objective spirit, into the spiritual realm, the culture that he finds and which he can (partially) absorb by means of upbringing and education. This ingrowth is his becoming man, since by man is meant a living being, distinguished by its spirituality, i.e. with their free existence and their inner ability, to look at events and things as if from the outside, as opposed to other living beings, over which direct impulses dominate. The personal spirit lives thanks to its connections with the spiritual community (“spiritless” people lack such a connection), which, for its part, creates the life of the objective spirit. As the carrier of the personal spirit is the mental store of the individual, so the carrier of the objective spirit is some kind of community (group, nation, group of nations). The objective spirit is connected with the personal spirit through the history of the spiritual life of a person (hence the “living spirit”), with the objectified spirit through the history of the spirit. The objective spirit can only be understood as a single organism with a personal objectified spirit. What is the product of a single spirit and what constitutes the value of the latter is the result of its relation to the objective spirit by which and for which it originated. We call the carrier of the objective spirit personality (see Personality). For example, the objective spirit of a nation is that which can be expressed about a nation; "objective spirit" is a combination of possible predicates to the subject "people", it manifests itself in the general spiritual heritage, to which, according to Nikolai Hartmann ("Das Problem des geistigen Seins", 1933), is primarily language, then production and technology follow. , the dominant morals, the law in force, the prevailing values, the prevailing morality, the traditional form of upbringing and education, the dominant type of attitudes and moods, which sets the tone for taste, fashion, the direction of art and artistic understanding, place and state of knowledge and science, developing worldview in any form (religion, myth, philosophy); Objective spirit manifests itself in the most pure and clear form where its content is least visible: in the norms of thinking, in concept and judgment, and therefore in the sphere of logic. In an objectified spirit - in man. science and art - we again know the living spirit that created them; he speaks to us through these works, because and as long as we (as individuals) can take part in them. The spiritual blessings, thus, simultaneously graves and sources of live spirit. Hegel also speaks of an absolute spirit, independent of any earthly carrier, identical with the pure divine spirit, regarded as an ideal whole.
Spirit - the highest ability of a person, allowing him to become a source of sense-setting, personal self-determination, meaningful transformation of reality; opening up the possibility to supplement the natural basis of individual and social being with the world of moral, cultural and religious values; playing the role of a guiding and centering principle for other faculties of the soul; 2) the ideal, world-ruling force, to which a person can be actively and passively involved.
The concept of "spirit" in contrast to "reason" (and even more so "reason") is not so rigidly connected with rational-cognitive abilities; unlike “intellect,” it correlates, as a rule, with its personified carrier, with the “face”; in contrast to the "soul" emphasizes the objective significance of its content and its relative independence from the element of emotional experiences, in contrast to the "will" highlights contemplation and meanings that can determine actions, rather than an act of free choice, in contrast to "consciousness "Fixes not so much the distance between I and its empirical content, as their living connection; in contrast to “mentality”, it does not include the unconscious mechanisms of traditional and everyday reactions and attitudes. Depending on the ideological context, the spirit can be opposed (as an opposition or as an alternative) to nature, life, matter, utilitarian necessity, practical activity, etc.
The conceptual and conceptual design of the spirit gets in ancient philosophy. Dosokratiki arises the doctrine of the ruling world, which builds cosmos of objective force from chaos, which permeates the world and even identifies with one of the real elements, but at the same time does not dissolve into passive materiality. Most often, a person is thought of as a carrier of a force that he could cultivate in himself, becoming her conscious employee. Usually this power was designated as the same name by any of the highest human abilities (soul, thinking, consciousness, speech, counting, etc.). Over time, the concepts of nous and pneuma became dominant. The concept of “nous”, which in the series of mental terms meant “mind”, “mindset”, “mental contemplation” and this differed from the terms with a psychological margin (psyche, thymus, fren), existential (sophia, gnosis) and discursive (logos , dianoia, dialectic) meanings, in Anaxagoras began to mean the world mind, the goal of cosmic dynamics and organizing-discriminating force (cf. the similar, but not fixed in the tradition concept of Empedocles "sacred consciousness" - В 134, 4 DK). In the philosophy of Plato, Aristotle, and the Neo-Platonists, the spirit as a world power is codified by the term “nous”, placed in a multi-layered ontological hierarchy: nus unites ideal forms-eoosy, takes root through them into the element of the world psyche psyche and forms world matter into a cosmic organism through it. For Plato and the Neoplatonists, nous is born of a higher principle, an inexpressible and incomprehensible "blessing", to which the nustecton. For Aristotle, nous is the highest level of being, a god who thinks of himself and thus creates the world.
The term "pneuma" (like the Latin. Analogue "spiritus") originally meant "air" or "breath." Quite early, it acquires a psychological and cosmological significance (for example, the Pythagorean cosmos breathes infinite pneuma, in Greek medicine pneuma is a real life force-breath). Stoicism understands pneuma as a fiery air substance, which in the form of ether permeates the world, relaxing in material objects and concentrating in the “seed logos”: thus, pneuma plays the role of the world soul as a reviving beginning and the role of the spirit as the ruling beginning. Neoplatonism also uses the concept of "pneuma", describing the penetration of spirit into the lower spheres of life: spirit and soul are enveloped by pneuma and through it are in contact with matter (see Enneads, 112.2; III 8; V 2). The genesis of the Christian understanding of the Spirit goes back to Hellenistic religious syncretism. In the Septuagint, the words “pneuma teu” convey the Hebrew concept “Ruach Elohim”. The Spirit of God (Gen. I, 2), which opens up the possibility of diverse convergences of Hellenic and Biblical theology. Philo of Alexandria also calls pneuma and the highest principle in man, and the wisdom that proceeds from God. The gospel doctrine of the Holy Spirit becomes the basis for understanding the Spirit as one of the manifestations of the Trinity. In the Trinity, the Spirit is the source of divine love and life-giving power. God is Spirit (John 4.24), but at the same time evil spirituality also exists. The ability to “distinguish spirits” was understood as one of the special gifts of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 12.10). In many cases (especially in the writings of al. Paul) it is difficult to attribute the word "Spirit" to the hypostasis of God or to human ability. However, medieval theologians saw in this an indication that the Spirit of God, seizing man, does not dissolve his individuality in himself. The coexistence of the Spirit to other persons of the Trinity in medieval philosophy stimulated ontological and logical debates about the concept of being. Obvious is the sharp boundary separating the ancient understanding of the spirit as the highest inner space power from the patriotic and medieval Christian understanding of the Spirit as an essence beyond the created world, but actively present in the world and transforming it.
The philosophy of the Renaissance loses interest in medieval pneumatology and returns to the Hellenistic intuitions of the spirit, understanding it as spilled life in the universe. Within the framework of naturalistic pantheism and occult natural philosophy, the Renaissance finds the place and the teachings of ancient physicians about the “Spiritus vitales”, a life spirit localized in the body and imparting to it vital energy.
In the 17-18 centuries. the crystallization of new themes related to the problem of the spirit occurs: these are the themes of spiritual substance and the structure of cognitive abilities. Spirit as a substance now plays the role of the ontological basis of the universe (cf. “nous”) and the role of the basis of the connection between the subjective reason and objective reality. Characteristically categorical delimitation of spirit and matter as closed in themselves, not having points of contact of substances and at the same time uniting in the dimension of the spiritual substance of those abilities that were previously at the lowest levels of the mental hierarchy, for example. sensations, experiences, aspirations, wills, etc. (cf. in this respect the concepts of cogitare Descartes, mens Spinoza, Spiritus Leibniz, esprit Leibniz and Helvetius, mind English empiricists). Thus, according to Descartes, spiritual substance (res cogitans) and material (res extensa) have nothing in common, but they reproduce within themselves the distinction between higher and lower, simple and complex, which old metaphysics usually distributed between spirit and matter. Within the framework of rationalism, the problem of coordination of spirit and matter arises, which forced us to appeal directly to God, the creator of “pre-established harmony,” since spirit as a substance turned out to be a kind of impersonal “spiritual machine.” In the tradition of empiricism, the spirit is deprived of substance and is reduced to individual states of the soul. “The spirit is something that can think,” says Locke, but it’s impossible to build on this basis a clear idea of the substance of the spirit, as well as the substance of the body, because we are only dealing with the supposed substrate of the “actions that we experience within ourselves,” thinking, knowledge, doubt, the power of motion, etc. ”(Experience of human reason, II, 23, 4-6). Berkeley, however, reverses this argument because it reveals in the very fact of perception that the asymmetry of the status of the self-sufficient spirit and its content is found. Besides “ideas” (i.e., any objects of perception), according to Berkeley, there is “a cognizing active being ... what I call mind, spirit, soul, or myself”, this is “a thing completely different from ideas” (On the principles of human knowledge, I, 2), “the spirit is a simple, indivisible, active being; as a perceiver of ideas, it is called the mind, as producing them or otherwise acting on them - the will ”(ibid., I, 27). Since all the things of the Universe "either do not exist at all, or exist in the mind of any eternal spirit", then "there is no other substance except spirit" (ibid., I, 6-7). Hume, in turn, overturns this concept of spirit, dismantling the principle of self-identity of I. “The essence of spirit (mind) is as unknown to us as the essence of external bodies, and it is equally impossible to form any idea of the forces and qualities of the spirit except with through careful and accurate experiments ... "(Treatise on Human Nature. Introduction). The monadology of Leibniz gives a different model of the relationship between spirit and the world: criticizing the idea of the “one universal spirit”, Leibniz believes that it is unreasonable to allow the existence of one spirit and one suffering principle, substance;the principle of perfection requires an admission between them of infinitely many intermediate stages, which are the individual souls, who reproduce the universal spirit in their own unique way. The monad soul, growing in its development to self-consciousness, becomes the final spirit and begins to reproduce in itself not so much the Universe as God, which is infinite spirit.
Немецкая философия эпохи Просвещения, обозначая понятие «дух», начинает отдавать предпочтение германскому слову «Geist», в основе которого — индоевропейский корень «ghei» со значением «движущая сила», «брожение», «кипение». Экхарт (13 в.) переводит «mens» как «Seele» и «anima» как «Geist». Лютер переводит словом «Geist» евангельское понятие «пневма». У Беме «Geist» уже носит значение глубинной силы души, придающей ей форму и имеющей соответствие в макрокосме в виде «Seelengeist», души в оболочке духа (Drei princ. 8). Просвещение (начиная с вольфианцев) интеллектуализирует «Geist», понимая его как дух, выражающий себя в мыслях. «Geist» сближается с «Vernunft» (разум); это понятие предпочитает и Кант. Однако мистико-виталистические коннотации понятия «Geist» сохраняются в послекантовской спекулятивной философии, у Гете и романтиков.
Кант ограничивает сферу употребления понятия «дух» («Geist») областью эстетики, где дух определяется как «оживляющий принцип в душе» и «способность изображения эстетических идей» (Критика способности суждения, § 49), и областью антропологии, где, в частности, различает духовные силы, осуществляемые рассудком (см., напр., Метафизика нравов, II, § 19). Критически относится Кант и к просветительской рационализации духа, и к его оккультной мистификации (см. полемику со Сведенборгом в «Грезах духовидца...»). Вместе с тем своим трансцендентальным методом Кант радикально изменил саму проблему, разделив традиционный для метафизики универсум сверхчувственного единства на три автономных царства — природа, свобода и целесообразность, которые уже не могли суммироваться отвлеченным понятием «дух».
В свете кантовских открытий Фихте, Гегель и Шеллинг дают новую трактовку понятия «дух». Если выделить ее смысловое ядро, сохранившееся на всех поворотах сложного пути немецкого трансцендентализма, то можно отметить следующие моменты. Все конечные феномены духа находят свой смысл в «абсолютном духе». Абсолютный дух творит себя и свою предметность. Абсолютный дух — это не объект, а процесс сверхэмпирической истории, в ходе которого дух порождает себя и в котором только он и существует. Абсолютный дух в своей истории отчуждается от себя (как от «Идеи») и, познавая отчужденный мир (как «Природу»), возвращается к себе (через историю человечества как «Абсолютный дух»). В результате абсолют приобретает конкретность и самосознание. Отвлеченные идеи эмпирической субъективности человека, т. о., суть лишь моменты в «биографии» абсолюта: чтобы стать истинным духом, он должен наполниться живым содержанием и придать ему форму вечности (шедевром изображения этого процесса остается гегелевская «Феноменология духа»).
Философия 19 в. в целом (если не считать консервативный спиритуализм) оказалась оппозицией немецкому трансцендентализму. Понятие духа оказывается естественной мишенью для критики таких направлений, как позитивизм, марксизм, волюнтаризм. «Дух» остается релевантньм понятием для мыслителей постромантического толка (Карлейль, Торо, Эмерсон) и для некоторых представителей философии жизни, которыми он обычно понимается как более или менее удачный псевдоним «жизни» или, напротив, как опасный недуг, тормозящий самоутверждение витальности (линия Ницше в 19 в. до Шпрангера и Л. Клагеса в 20 в.).
В 20 в. философия отнеслась к понятию «дух» более лояльно. Оппоненты в некоторых случаях переоткрыли его в рамках своих учений (напр., версия Кассирера в неокантианстве, версия Юнга в психоанализе, версия Бергсона в витализме, версия Шеллера в феноменологии, версия Сантаяны и Уайтхеда в неореализме). Философия культуры (особенно немецкая ветвь), строя цивилизационные модели, обнаружила его функциональность. Такие направления, как неотомизм, русская религиозная философия или итальянский неоспиритуализм (Кроче, Джентиле), реанимировали классические представления о духе в свете «неклассического» опыта современности. Персонализм (Мунье), философия диалога (Бубер), экзистенциализм (Ясперс) используют не только лексику традиционных учений о духе, но и их концептуальные схемы. В новейшей философии понятие «дух» непопулярно.
The spirit is masculine, will and personality vertical. The spirit makes the soul high, spiritualizes the mind and body. The spirit is often understood as the will ("gathered with the spirit"), but the will only helps a person not to bend. and guides it upwards - the spirit.
The soul is a living, female part of the space of the inner life of a person. What makes us (and our mind) warm, and our body breathing, alive. The soul gives life energy. These are inner feelings, desires, impulses ... The soul is the beginning of the mother, the source of vitality and warmth, the personality horizontal.
Mind is intellectual content. Synonym for "head", close "conscious". It remains in my head - remember, remember. Improved mind - pure and filled - Mind. Mindless - fool. The mind that has passed into the body gives skill, skill. The union of mind and soul is an intelligent soul. The right mind must be enriched by warm-heartedness, but the line of the heart must also be complemented by the line of the mind.
The body is the skills, the unconscious, the physiological basis of mental life and intellectual search. “Left in the body” - skill developed or recorded as a persistent, long-term functional bodily change. For example, anchor or clamp.
Who defines whom? It seems that it largely depends on the level of personal development. The less developed a person is, the more genes determine the body, the body determines the soul, and the soul determines the mind. The more a person develops, the more the mind enlightens the soul, the soul is friends with the body, the mind and soul build the body, and a new gene pool accumulates in the body. See also Personality Structure
In everyday life, for most people, the spirit usually sleeps, the mind serves mental impulses, and the soul is guided by their body. It seems that 90% of people live predominantly with their bodies. The body - their master, soul and mind - their servants, we remember the spirit only when reminded, and then with fear.
Joan of Arc lived in the spirit. Sofia Kovalevskaya - mind. Educated girls live in the soul, completely ill-mannered - completely body.
Когда обычная, средняя девушка говорит о своей душе, она на самом деле говорит о своем теле. "Мне хочется в жизни разнообразия" - вроде как о ее душевных устремлениях, на самом деле - о привычках ее тела. Те, кто живет своими ощущениями и чувствами - живут своей душой, то есть свободной жизнью тела, высшей жизнью тела. Врожденные и приобретенные страхи, естественные биологические инстинкты (половой, размножения) и рефлексы (рефлекс новизны) - это низшая жизнь тела, души тут мало или почти нет.
По замыслу о личности, дух должен быть во главе, руководя умом, душой и телом. У сильного человека ум и душа - помощники духа, а тело - воспитуемый ими ребенок. Подробнее?
I look at yogurt during breakfast: it seems tasty, the soul asks. Opened, began to eat - I feel that I am no longer going, I ate too much, the body is protesting. The mind makes the decision: stop yogurt is set aside for lunch. Gathered with the spirit - rose from the table.
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philosophiya
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