Along with power engineering, industry, agriculture, and construction, transport exerts a significant impact on the environment. Transport has always played an important role in the life of humankind, but its role increased especially in the 20th century. The distance between any two points on the globe can be covered in a few hours.

The following main types of transport are distinguished: automobile, air, rail, sea, river, and trunk pipeline (oil pipelines and gas pipelines).

At present the globe is covered by a dense network of communication routes. The length of the world’s paved trunk roads exceeds 11,5 million km, air routes — 5,3 million km, railways — 1,3 million km, pipelines — about 1 million km, inland waterways — 600 thousand km. Transport has become one of the largest sectors of the national economy. Transport employs 9 % of all those working in the national economy, and transport consumes approximately 13% of the fuel and energy resources spent in the national economy. A large share of transport work is performed by industrial transport, of which approximately 30 — 35% of shipments are carried out by railways and about 60% — by automobiles, while the remaining 5 — 10% — by conveyor-type means (pipelines, conveyors, cableways), as well as river and sea vessels.

The impact of various types of transport on the environment occurs in various ways.

Modern large airports usually require 25 — 50 km² of area. The airport in Dallas (Texas, USA) occupies 70 km². Let us add to this that approximately 120 km² in the zone of a modern airport become unsuitable for habitation, mainly for reasons of flight safety and excessive noise.

Building railways and roads on overpasses, and especially underground, radically solves the problem of saving land area. But such structures substantially increase the cost of transport facilities: on overpasses — by 1,5 — 2 times, underground — $ 3 — 4 times. In many cities of the world, roads and railways, as well as metro lines, have been raised onto overpasses. The high-speed railway between Tokyo and Osaka has been raised onto an overpass. To save space, multi-story and underground* garages and car parks are also built. In Geneva, for example, an underground garage is located even under part of a lake. Underground railway stations are being built. An example of a grandiose underground station is the new station in Tokyo. The use of land reclaimed from the sea has long been practiced. The Netherlands has accumulated the greatest experience in this respect, approximately 1/3 of whose territory was once the seabed. Today the Netherlands is studying and implementing possibilities for building new islands in the North Sea to house airfields, berths for loading and unloading supertankers, as well as waste incineration plants and factories for processing industrial and household waste.

In Japan, a significant part of the overpass of the monorail connecting central Tokyo with the airport runs not over the shore but directly over the sea along the coast. Artificial islands have also been created there. Tokyo and Osaka partly stand on land reclaimed from the sea. The Dutch method of draining land with dams was used in the USA in building the airport in Chicago on the shore of Lake Michigan, and also in Great Britain on a number of islands.

All types of transport cause pollution of water bodies to one degree or another. The most common pollutants introduced into the hydrosphere by transport are oil and petroleum products. This pollution is intensified by acci-

dents involving tankers carrying oil. By the 1970s, many large rivers and lakes had become polluted to one degree or another. The waters of many seas are polluted with oil, especially in the Mediterranean basin, in particular in the areas of Naples, Venice, Genoa, and Marseille. An oil film blocks 35 — 40% of ultraviolet radiation and thereby reduces photosynthesis and biomass formation in the ocean. It also hinders the exchange of oxygen between the hydrosphere and the atmosphere, and 1 ton of oil in water absorbs almost all the oxygen dissolved in 400 thousand tons of water. Oil not only floats but also sinks, poisoning the deep water masses. Already today the damage in terms of the volume of seafood used by humans is estimated at 20 million tons per year, or about 25%.

Transport, together with industry, is currently the main source of air pollution. Automobile transport bears special responsibility. According to American data, in 1960 it accounted for more than 55 % of the total mass of pollutants, with especially large amounts of carbon monoxide emitted (81 %). In other words, transport releases a significant share of the pollutants attributed to power engineering, industry, and other spheres of the economy.

A modern automobile consumes about 200 l of oxygen to burn 1 kg of gasoline. This is more than the volume of oxygen a person breathes over the course of a day. On average, with a mileage of 15 thousand km per year, a car burns 1,5 — 2 t of fuel and 20 — 30 t of oxygen. A jet passenger aircraft flying from Paris to New York consumes 35 t of oxygen.

1. Automobile transport

Automobile transport is among the main sources of environmental pollution [38]. In large cities, automobile transport accounts for more than half of the volume of harmful emissions into the atmosphere. In megacities this figure is even higher: St. Petersburg — 71 %, Moscow — 88%. The failure of vehicles to meet environmental requirements, combined with the continuing growth of traffic flows and poor road conditions, leads to a steady increase in the pollution of atmospheric air, soils, and water bodies. Levels of air pollution by nitrogen and carbon oxides, hydrocarbons, and other harmful substances on most highways exceed maximum permissible concentrations by 5 —10 times.

Most grades of gasoline currently in use contain tetraethyl lead (0,41 — 0,82 g/l) as an anti-knock additive. Gasoline with this additive is called leaded. The use of this additive makes it possible to reduce fuel consumption but pollutes the atmosphere with lead compounds.

In Russia in 1997, 22,5 million units of automotive equipment were in operation, including more than 17,6 million passenger cars. There are about 4 thousand large and more than 200 thousand small enterprises in the country directly engaged in transportation.

The low technical level of domestic automobiles and their operation, which does not meet the requirements of national standards, was confirmed by the results of the «Clean Air» operation carried out in 1997. In practically all constituent entities of the Russian Federation it was noted that the share of vehicles operating in excess of the current toxicity and smokiness standards averages 20 — 25 % and reaches 40 % in certain regions of the country.

The main causes of the difficult environmental situation in cities associated with the operation of automobile transport are:

• the lack of proper control at enterprises over compliance with state standards for the toxicity and smokiness of exhaust gases of vehicles;

• the production of leaded automotive gasolines, which does not allow the elimination of lead compound emissions and the use of catalytic converters;

• weak control over the quality of the motor fuel sold;

• insufficient attention paid to converting automobile transport to less toxic types of fuel;

• the entry of heavy-duty vehicles into city territory;

• the lack of a sufficient regulatory framework, and the low effectiveness of the economic mechanism for managing environmental protection in transport.

In 2000, the world’s automobile fleet reached approximately 1 billion units, of which 83 — 85 % were passenger cars, and 15—-17% — trucks and buses. Of the total number of passenger cars, approximately 40 % were concentrated in the USA, 10% — in Japan, and 20% — in four European countries: Germany, France, Italy, and Great Britain. Per 1000 inhabitants in 2001, on average there were: in the USA — 534 cars, France — 454, in Great Britain — 322, in Russia — 167 cars.

If all the cars existing in the world today were placed bumper to bumper, they would form a ribbon 4 million km long, which could wrap around the globe at the equator 100 times. Specialists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA) believe that even after 2000, despite the development of the public transport network, private cars will make up approximately 75% of the entire transport fleet.

Effect of automobile exhaust gases on humans

By their effect on the human body, the components of exhaust gases (table 4) are divided into:

toxic — carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, lead compounds;

carcinogenic — benzo(a)pyrene;

irritant — sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons.

The effect of the listed exhaust gas components on the human body depends on their concentration in the atmosphere and the duration of exposure.

Composition of exhaust gases (eg)

Carbon monoxide— a colorless and odorless gas. When inhaled it penetrates the blood and forms a complex compound with hemoglobin — carboxyhemoglobin. Carbon monoxide reacts with hemoglobin 210 times faster than oxygen, which leads to the development of oxygen deficiency. Signs of oxygen deficiency include disturbances of the central nervous system, damage to the respiratory system, and decreased visual acuity. Increased average daily concentrations of carbon monoxide contribute to increased mortality among people with cardiovascular disease.

Depending on the degree of concentration, carbon monoxide in the air causes:

• mild poisoning after 1 h (C = 0,05 vol. %);

• loss of consciousness after a few breaths (C = 1 vol. %). Nitrogen oxides — a mixture of various oxides: NO₂, N₂O₃, N₂O₄. NO₂ poses the greatest danger.

Exposure of humans to nitrogen oxides leads to impairment of lung and bronchial function. Children and people suffering from cardiovascular disease are more susceptible to the effects of nitrogen oxides.

Depending on concentration, nitrogen oxides in the air cause:

• irritation of the mucous membranes of the nose and eyes (C = 0,001 vol.%);

• the onset of oxygen starvation (C = 0,001 vol. %);

• pulmonary edema (C = 0,008 vol. %).

Sulfur dioxide— a colorless gas with a sharp odor, readily soluble in water, forming sulfurous acid. Prolonged exposure to even relatively low concentrations of sulfur compounds contributes to the occurrence of bronchitis, asthma, and other respiratory diseases.

Depending on the degree of concentration, sulfur dioxide in the air causes:

• irritation of the mucous membrane of the eyes, coughing (C = 0,001 % vol.);

• irritation of the mucous membrane of the throat (C = 0,002 vol. %);

• poisoning after 3 min (C = 0,004 vol. %);

• poisoning after 1 min (C = 0,01 vol. %).

Hydrocarbons — a group of compounds of the type C_XH_Y. They have an unpleasant odor. Smog is formed as a result of photochemical reactions of hydrocarbons with nitrogen oxides.

Benzo(a)pyrene — a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). Under normal atmospheric conditions it is a crystalline product, poorly soluble in water. Once it enters the human body, PAH gradually accumulates to critical concentrations and stimulates the formation of malignant tumors.

Soot — a solid filtrate of exhaust gases, consisting mainly of carbon particles. It poses no direct danger to humans. The effect of soot manifests itself as an unpleasant sensation of air pollution. Soot is an adsorbent of carcinogenic substances (up to 2 % PAH) and enhances the effect of other toxic components, for example sulfur dioxide.

Lead compounds appear in exhaust gases when tetraethyl lead is used as an anti-knock additive to gasoline. Lead can accumulate in the body, entering it through the respiratory tract, with food, and through the skin. It affects the central nervous system and hematopoietic organs.

— anhydride increases mortality from cardiovascular disease and contributes to the occurrence of bronchitis, asthma, and other respiratory diseases.

Depending on the degree of concentration, sulfur dioxide in the air causes:

• irritation of the mucous membrane of the eyes, coughing (C = 0,001 % vol.);

• irritation of the mucous membrane of the throat (C = 0,002 vol. %);

• poisoning after 3 min (C = 0,004 vol. %);

• poisoning after 1 min (C = 0,01 vol. %).

Hydrocarbons — a group of compounds of the type C_XH_Y. They have an unpleasant odor. Smog is formed as a result of photochemical reactions of hydrocarbons with nitrogen oxides.

Benzo(a)pyrene — a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). Under normal atmospheric conditions it is a crystalline product, poorly soluble in water. Once it enters the human body, PAH gradually accumulates to critical concentrations and stimulates the formation of malignant tumors.

Soot — a solid filtrate of exhaust gases, consisting mainly of carbon particles. It poses no direct danger to humans. The effect of soot manifests itself as an unpleasant sensation of air pollution. Soot is an adsorbent of carcinogenic substances (up to 2 % PAH) and enhances the effect of other toxic components, for example sulfur dioxide.

Lead compounds appear in exhaust gases when tetraethyl lead is used as an anti-knock additive to gasoline. Lead can accumulate in the body, entering it through the respiratory tract, with food, and through the skin. It affects the central nervous system and hematopoietic organs.

Many large cities are characterized by the maximum permissible concentration of carbon monoxide being exceeded by 20 — 30 times, which doctors associate with high mortality from myocardial infarction.

The concentration of nitrogen oxides in cities increases 10 — 100 times. Nitrogen oxides entering the atmosphere persist there for 3 — 4 days. As a result of photochemical reactions in sunlight, nitrogen oxide forms nitrogen dioxide NO₂, which together with hydrocarbons causes the formation of toxic fogs called smogs.

The lifetime of sulfur dioxide gas in the atmosphere is within 10 h. SO₂ emissions are the cause of sulfuric acid precipitation, which contributes to the acidification of soil and water and the deterioration of building facades.

Content of harmful substances in exhaust gases

The content of carbon dioxide in the air is not standardized. The lifetime of CO2 in the atmosphere is 4 years. An increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide is dangerous because it causes the greenhouse effect, which leads to an increase in air temperature at the Earth’s surface (see chapter 10).

A high lead content in the human body leads to chronic lead poisoning.

Effect of dust on human health

The main sources of dust entering the Earth’s atmosphere are: thermal power plants (emit 25 % of the total amount of dust), industry (50%), waste incineration (8%), and other sources, including automobile transport (17%).

Dust is classified by degree of dispersion into coarse (particle sizes above 10 µm), medium (from 10 to 0,25 µm), and fine (no less than 0,25 µm). Dust is a type of aerosol. Aerosols with solid particles formed as a result of fuel combustion are called smoke, while those with liquid particles are called fog. Dust particles and aerosols are constantly in motion in the environment. The settling velocity of particles suspended in air depends on their size.

The degree of air dustiness during the movement of automobile transport depends on the following factors: the season of the year,

the type of road surface and soil type, wind direction, traffic intensity, vehicle load capacity, and tire type.

The main component of dust is quartz. On city highways, street dust also contains admixtures of calcium, cadmium, lead, chromium, zinc, copper, and iron. The presence of the listed admixtures is determined by the operation of automobile transport and the treatment of highways with de-icing compounds. Studded tires increase dust emissions. Road surface wear with their use amounts to 2 — 4 mm per winter season. In a number of countries the use of studded tires is prohibited, except for a limited number of special-purpose vehicles.

The effect of dust increases the rate of wear of machines and mechanisms and has a harmful effect on the human body. From an analysis of internal combustion engine failures, it is known that 50% occur due to fuel contamination by suspended particles of inorganic origin. Their content is directly dependent on the degree of air dustiness and the season of operation and varies from a few grams to 300 g per ton of fuel.

The harmful effect of dust on the human body depends on its dispersion, particle hardness, the shape of the dust particles, their electric charge, etc. Fine dust is the most dangerous, since it settles in the lungs and bronchi and, with prolonged inhalation, leads to occupational diseases.

The means and methods of combating urban air dustiness include:

• reducing solid particle emissions during ICE operation;

• developing new and improving existing road surfaces;

• cleaning and wetting city streets;

• using de-icing agents that do not contain harmful admixtures;

• saturating cities with areas of green plantings.

Acid-containing aerosols that adsorb carcinogenic substances are particularly dangerous to the body. The former disrupt the acid balance of tissue cells; the latter, gradually accumulating in the body, may cause malignant tumors.

Waste of motor transport enterprises

The use, maintenance, and repair of automobiles lead to the formation of waste at motor transport enterprises (MTEs) that has a harmful effect on the environment.

Petroleum products (used engine, transmission, and industrial oils, and greases) are dangerous because of their mobility when they enter soil or water. At petroleum pollutant concentrations above 0,05 mg/l, the taste qualities of water deteriorate.

Sources of environmental pollution by petroleum products at an MTE may be wastewater from external car-washing installations, as well as the vehicles themselves when oil leaks from their units. Oil leaking from vehicles in open lots and spillage of oil during refueling lead to it being washed off the MTE territory and entering the soil with storm water.

Various pollutants, including fuel, oils, water-soluble salts, and dirt with a high content of heavy metals (lead), are carried by rainwater runoff from the road surface into adjacent soils.

Sediment accumulating in the settling tanks of washing installations (sand, clay, silt, petroleum products) forms a mass harmful to the environment. Over the course of a year, through repeated passes through a washing installation, one vehicle on average leaves behind harmful substances: a passenger car up to 50 kg and a truck — up to 250 kg.

Battery electrolyte is a substance that is very harmful to the environment. Lead dust and pieces of lead plates settle at the bottom of battery cells. Therefore, washing battery cells in places where spent electrolyte residue and lead sludge may enter wastewater or soil is impermissible.

Ethylene glycol is a component of antifreezes; if the rules for their use are violated, it can enter soil and wastewater. Ethylene glycol is poisonous, has high penetrating capacity, and enters the environment at the slightest leaks in engine cooling systems.

Rubber dust and dust from asphalt road surfaces contain harmful substances that enter the soil and atmosphere. Every year, up to 10 kg of rubber wears off the wheels of a single vehicle, and a layer of 1 mm wears off asphalt road surfaces. This means that on a highway 10 m wide, 100 t of dust is formed per year on every 100 km stretch.

Waste brake fluid, generated during maintenance and repair of the hydraulic drives of a vehicle’s braking system, also requires disposal.

Over its life cycle, a single automobile generates a mass of secondary resources and waste 10 times greater than the mass of the vehicle itself. If the water used (for washing and cooling systems) is also taken into account, the mass of waste generated exceeds the vehicle’s own mass by 100 times. For example, an MTE with 150 ZIL-130 vehicles generates approximately 1,5 thousand t of secondary resources and waste per year of operation, and, taking water consumption into account — 9 thousand t.

Creating environmentally friendly automobile designs

The environmental friendliness of automobiles is ensured by their fuel efficiency, i.e., the less fuel a vehicle consumes, the smaller the environmental damage.

Fuel savings are achieved through a set of design and operational measures for automobile designs that are fundamentally retained. For passenger cars, the greatest influence on reducing fuel consumption is exerted by: reducing the mass and dimensions of the vehicle, improving aerodynamic characteristics, reducing rolling resistance, using computerized engine monitoring and control systems, and reducing all types of mechanical losses.

Reducing the mass and dimensions of a vehicle is achieved through the use of high-strength steels and aluminum alloys, plastics, and fiberglass and carbon-fiber composites.

In the design of trucks, the main sources of fuel economy are dieselization (54%), fan speed regulation (28%), the use of radial tires (13%), and improvement of aerodynamic shapes and fairings (5%).

Promising directions for improving the modern internal combustion engine automobile include: increasing engine efficiency by improving combustion processes (turbocharging, engine operation on lean mixtures, electronic ignition); reducing friction losses (reducing piston surface area, reducing bearing shell support surfaces, using ceramic coatings); optimizing engine operating modes through electronic engine process control systems; and using dual-fuel vehicles (gasoline — gas; diesel fuel — gas).

To reduce atmospheric pollution, fuel consumption standards per 100 km of travel are being tightened. Thus, in the USA every company was required to ensure that the average fuel consumption per vehicle in 1985 did not exceed 8,5 l, and by 1995 the average vehicle sold in the country consumed no more than 5,3 l per 100 km of travel. To reduce vehicle mass, which reduces fuel loss during acceleration and deceleration, it is advisable to replace ordinary steel and cast-iron vehicle parts with parts made of aluminum alloys, high-strength steels, titanium, plastic, and composite materials. Vehicle aerodynamics has also come to be regarded as important from this standpoint. Studies conducted show that, overall, improving aerodynamics can reduce fuel consumption by up to 15%.

As early as 1985, the company «Isuzu» (Japan) presented a model with a ceramic engine that is 14% lighter and 30% more economical than existing ones. This engine has no cooling system and can run on any type of fuel. The company «Toyota» demonstrated an ultra-economical car that, at a speed of 60 km/h, travels 54 km on 1 l of gasoline, i.e., it uses 1,85 l per 100 km.

In 1987 the firm «Renault» demonstrated the experimental car «Vesta-2», which traveled the route from Paris to Bordeaux (501 km), consuming, under average traffic-intensity conditions, 9,75 l of gasoline, i.e., 1,94 l per 100 km. But economy is not the main merit of a modern automobile. Today environmentally clean cars are valued. The strictest requirements in this regard are in force in the USA, Japan, Switzerland, and Austria (table 6). In the USA almost all vehicles in operation have special devices for reducing exhaust toxicity, and 85 % are equipped with catalytic converters. In Germany 94 % of newly purchased cars belong to the «clean» category.

The development of special automatic devices that will allow the engine to be shut off without driver involvement while stopped at a traffic light or in traffic jams is also envisaged.

Depending on external conditions, modern automobile electronics helps maintain engine operating modes that are nearly safe for the environment and saves fuel.

Use of improved and alternative fuels

The environmental situation in automobile transport is improved by banning the use of leaded gasoline. Besides the toxicity of tetraethyl lead, the use of leaded gasoline quickly disables catalytic converters of exhaust gases because lead coats the catalyst surface.

Alternative substitutes for gasoline may be of natural or artificial origin. Under normal conditions they may be in liquid (ethanol, methanol) or gaseous (propane, butane, coke oven and generator gases, hydrogen) form. The predominant use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and compressed natural gas (CNG) as motor fuel in automobile transport is due to the fact that they have physicochemical properties close to those of gasoline. This requires only a minor change in engine design and allows equally effective operation on either fuel.

In a number of countries synthetic alcohols are used as fuel: methanol, or methyl alcohol, and ethanol — ethyl alcohol.

Methanol is obtained from coal, shale, and wood. It is somewhat heavier than gasoline, and its energy content is 2 times lower. Starting an engine on pure methanol, especially in winter, is difficult. According to some data, methanol increases metal corrosion, especially in the presence of water. At present the cost of methanol is higher than that of gasoline. An important quality of methanol is that exhaust gases contain 2 — 3 times fewer toxic components than when gasoline is used. Methanol is used as an additive to gasoline in an amount of 5 — 30 %. This reduces the concentration of carbon monoxide in exhaust gases by 14 — 72%. A methanol—gasoline mixture somewhat reduces engine power characteristics. But it should be kept in mind that adding methanol, for example in an amount of 15 %, raises the octane number of the mixture from 88 to 95,8. With appropriate modification of the engine to increase its compression ratio, fuel consumption savings can even be obtained. Disadvantages of the mixture as a fuel include its tendency to stratify, especially when water gets into the mixture and at lower temperatures. Methanol is poisonous.

Ethanol has an energy content 25 — 30 % higher and therefore requires a proportionally smaller fuel tank. Ethanol’s environmental characteristics are close to those of methanol. Engines running on ethanol emit even fewer hydrocarbons in their exhaust gases. However, the combustion products of alcohol contain entirely new atmospheric pollutants, including formaldehyde.

In Brazil in 1985 all cars already ran on blends with a methanol content of 2 —10%. It was expected that the share of methanol in Brazil’s automotive fuel would continue to rise and that by 2000 automotive fuel would consist of 75 % methanol. Improvements in technology and mass production were expected to substantially reduce the cost of methanol, and it was anticipated that it would become cheaper than gasoline. In 1987 more than 2 million passenger cars, several tens of thousands of trucks, and hundreds of tractors in Brazil ran on fuel alcohol obtained from sugar cane, manioc (a type of potato), bamboo, and wood. And in ordinary cars pure gasoline is not used; it is mandatorily diluted with 30 % alcohol for the sake of economy.

The use of gas fuel in the form of a propane and butane mixture reduces the amount of carbon monoxide at idle by a factor of 4, and in operating mode by a factor of 10. Today several hundred thousand such vehicles are already in operation worldwide. As early as 1970, Japan had about 300 thousand vehicles running on gas fuel, and Italy — 500 thousand.

In our country, and in a number of other countries, research is being conducted on the use of natural gas as automotive fuel. In this case the toxicity of exhaust gases is reduced: for CO — by 2 — 4 times; CH — by 1,1 —1,4; NO — by 1,2 —2 times. World reserves of natural gas are approximately twice the world reserves of oil. Natural gas is already used as fuel for approximately a quarter of a million vehicles in Italy, Canada, and New Zealand. The main drawback associated with this type of fuel is the bulkiness of the gas cylinder. It must be approximately 5 times larger in volume than a gasoline tank for an equivalent range.

From the standpoint of environmental preservation, the ideal fuel is hydrogen, but it is considerably more expensive than gasoline. Placing hydrogen in a vehicle also presents a serious technical and economic problem, and a reliable and economical way of using hydrogen has not yet been found.

Alternative automobile designs

The energy and environmental crises of large cities are stimulating the creation of electric vehicles. Thus, in California (Los Angeles — the birthplace of photochemical smog) a law on air basin protection was adopted. Under the law, by 2003 10% of vehicles in California must produce no exhaust emissions into the atmosphere. This made it possible to launch a program for developing electric vehicles.

Electric vehicles must be competitive with modern internal combustion engine vehicles. The commercial success of an electric vehicle depends on initial cost, operating costs, range, battery service life and charging time, reliability, and safety. At present all these indicators depend mainly on the quality of the batteries.

Electric vehicle batteries must have high power, a high energy reserve, a long service life, allow fast charging, and operate reliably over a wide range of operating temperatures. Environmental requirements include the possibility of regenerating and recycling all battery components at the end of their service life.

Lead-acid starter batteries are the most widely used in the automotive industry. For electric vehicles such batteries are too heavy, have an insufficient service life, and low specific energy — 25 — 30 (Wh/kg). New types of batteries with increased specific energy have now been developed and prepared for production: nickel-cadmium (30 — 40 Wh/kg), nickel-metal hydride (35 — 50 Wh/kg), sodium-nickel chloride (90—130 Wh/kg), aluminum-air (250 — 300 Wh/kg), and others. Thus, tests of sodium-nickel chloride batteries showed a specific power of up to 170 W/kg, an energy efficiency of 91 %, and a service life of 5 years or 1500 charge—discharge cycles (corresponding to an electric vehicle range of 150 thousand km).

According to forecasts by the French battery company SAFT, by 2010 serial production of batteries with a specific energy of 200 Wh/kg, specific power of 300 W/kg, and a service life of at least 1000 discharge cycles will begin.

To reduce a vehicle’s energy consumption, its rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag are reduced. Thus, the French company «Michelin» created tires whose rolling resistance is reduced by 35% compared with standard ones. This made it possible to increase the range of electric vehicles by 20 %. The use of high-strength steels, aluminum alloys, fiberglass and carbon-fiber composites, and plastics makes it possible to reduce the mass of a passenger electric vehicle by 150 — 200 kg and change its shape. This makes it possible to reduce the aerodynamic drag coefficient from the usual values of 0,35 — 0,50 to 0,20 — 0,25.

When braking an ordinary automobile, all the kinetic energy is irretrievably lost (heating of the brake devices). In an electric vehicle the kinetic energy is regenerated and directed to charging the battery, which reduces energy consumption by 10—15%.

In 1985, more than 44 thousand electric vehicles were in operation in Great Britain; the most widespread were 2-t capacity vans for intra-city delivery of goods, in particular for delivering milk. The range of such an electric vehicle is 40 — 60 km at a speed of 30 — 40 km/h. Prototype passenger cars had a range of 175 — 180 km, trucks — 150 — 220 km, and electric buses for 60 — 80 people — 150 — 170 km. In all cases the speed does not exceed 40 km/h. On certain types of electric buses a range of up to 330 km is guaranteed. The electric vehicle of the «Migros» company in 1987 was capable of reaching a speed of over 100 km/h, with a range of 150 km without recharging.

At the beginning of 1990 the «FIAT» concern presented the first production electric vehicle, the «Elettra». The electric vehicle is designed for two people, can carry 100 kg of cargo, and reaches a speed of 70 km/h. It contains 12 batteries and a silent electric motor. The batteries are charged from an ordinary electric grid over 8 h and cost 2 dollars. In France the «Peugeot-205» electric vehicles have already appeared, in Spain — the «Fea and Marbella Torpedo», and in the USA the company «General Motors» presented a new model, the «Impact».

Even more environmentally friendly is the solar car — a vehicle with solar panels and batteries recharged from the solar panels. In Australia in 1988 the «Sunraycer» car was demonstrated, winning a race over a distance of 3130 km. In early January 1990, in Basel (Switzerland), the first solar electric vehicle rental office in Europe opened. In sunny weather the range of such an electric vehicle is 100 km, in overcast weather 50 km. In 1990 the company «Honda» (Japan) demonstrated a solar car capable of reaching a speed of 120 km/h.

At present practically all major automobile companies in the world are preparing for serial production of electric vehicles (table 7). Thus, in California the company «Calstart» was organized to develop next-generation electric vehicles, bringing together enterprises of the aerospace complex.

The creation of a two-seat electric vehicle with a maximum speed of 120 km/h, a range of at least 225 km, and an acceleration time to 100 km/h of 11 s is planned. Aluminum alloys are to be used in the design of the running gear, and recyclable plastics in the body design. The electric vehicle is equipped with a contactless charging device. The energy management control system will monitor the electric vehicle’s operating characteristics using sensors. This data will be processed by an onboard microcomputer in order to predict range under different driving modes and reduce electricity costs. The electric vehicle’s tires are lighter than standard ones and their rolling resistance is reduced by 30%.

Characteristics of electric vehicles

body — recyclable plastics. The electric vehicle is equipped with a contactless charging device. The energy management control system will monitor the electric vehicle’s operating characteristics using sensors. This data will be processed by an onboard microcomputer in order to predict range under different driving modes and reduce electricity costs. The electric vehicle’s tires are lighter than standard ones and their rolling resistance is reduced by 30%.

Thus, the development of electric vehicle transport shows that the automobile industry is practically ready to create an electric vehicle competitive with a modern internal combustion engine automobile.

2. Water, rail, and air transport and ecology

Pollution of the environment by water transport occurs through two channels: sea and river vessels pollute the biosphere, firstly, with waste generated by operational activity, and secondly, with releases in the event of accidents involving toxic cargoes, mostly oil and petroleum products. Ship power plants (mainly diesel engines) pollute the atmosphere with gases, from where toxic substances partially or almost completely enter the waters of rivers, seas, and oceans (this issue will be examined in more detail in chapter 12).

In 1983 the international convention for the prevention of pollution of the marine environment came into force. In 1974 the states of the Baltic basin signed in Helsinki the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea. This was the first international agreement at the regional level. As a result of the work carried out, the content of petroleum products in the open waters of the Baltic Sea had decreased 20-fold by 1990 compared with 1975. By the early 1980s, in the open areas of the Black Sea the concentration of petroleum products had decreased 2-fold, and in the Sea of Azov — 14-fold, compared with 1977.

Systems for the mechanical collection of oil and debris from the water surface, chemical treatment of oil films, and biological decomposition of the films are being developed all over the world.

Although rail transport, or more precisely its rolling stock, has an adverse effect on all parts of the biosphere, its impact is substantially smaller compared with automobile transport, firstly, because it is one of the most fuel-economical types of transport per unit of work performed, and secondly, owing to the widespread electrification of railways.

Magnetic-levitation vehicles could become a serious alternative to the automobile and the bus. The main advantages of these vehicles from an environmental standpoint are the absence of air pollution and practical silence. High speed and smoothness of ride (absence of jolts and vibrations) suggest that this type of transport will become widespread in all types of service: urban, suburban, and international.

Experts believe that in the 21st century, on the basis of the widespread application of superconductors, silent, safe magnetic-levitation trains will be created that will be able to successfully compete in speed with aircraft. The first experimental maglev trains were built in 1988 and weigh about 17 t and are designed for 44 passengers. The train’s maximum speed is 400 km/h. Another «maglev» was created in Germany. It is called the «Transrapid». The capacity of one car, which weighs about 100 t, is 96 people. On a 40 km test track, the maximum speed shown during testing was 400 km/h. The West German government decided to begin operating the «Transrapid» at the end of the 20th or beginning of the 21st century. According to existing plans, a similar train is to link Los Angeles and Las Vegas.

The total emission of toxic substances by civil aviation aircraft can be approximately estimated from the volume of fuel consumed by aviation, which amounts to about 4 % of the total fuel consumption of all types of transport. Thus, the share of pollution introduced into the atmosphere by air transport is small, and moreover toxic substances are dispersed over large areas. Nevertheless, work is being carried out in many countries to reduce the content of toxic components in exhaust gases in accordance with strict standards developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Work is underway to reduce fuel consumption, as well as to search for more environmentally friendly types of fuel. The use of hydrogen as fuel for air transport is considered promising.

From the standpoint of environmental protection, the trends in the development of transport look as follows.

• Railways are switching completely to electric power.

• Urban transit buses are being replaced by trolleybuses and silent trams.

• Automobile transport in cities will be replaced by electric vehicles or solar-powered vehicles.

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Часть 1 Lecture 7. The Impact of Transport on the Environment: Ecology of Water, Rail, and Air