2. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Presotsiology in antiquity

The first in the history of European thought theories of society arose within the framework of ancient philosophy. The most significant of them belong to the two largest ancient Greek philosophers - Plato (428 / 427–347 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC) .

Plato's social views are most fully reflected in the “State” dialogue. The main idea that is carried out in it is that the human society should reproduce a certain ideal. It is an ideal social system, consciously built and controlled by the intellectual elite in accordance with the principles of reason and expediency.

Society is in a state of chaos, social tension and unrest until it establishes a firm order in which every citizen does his work (division of labor), but does not interfere in the affairs of other citizens, estates, classes (social division). A stable society should be considered divided into three classes (classes): the highest, consisting of wise men, governing the state; medium, including warriors guarding the state from turmoil and disorder; lower, consisting of artisans and peasants.

Belonging to the intellectual elite, according to Plato, was due only to the origin. Plato believed that people are by nature not equal, and only those who are born with the highest qualities of the soul, wise men and philosophers, can rule. They must maintain moral height and be an absolute model of behavior for the lower strata of society.

In Aristotle, the support of order is the middle class. Besides him, there are two more classes: the rich plutocracy and the dispossessed poor. The state is best managed when the mass of the poor is not excluded from participation in management, the selfish interests of the rich are limited, and the middle class is larger and stronger than the other two. Aristotle taught that the imperfection of society is not corrected by equalizing distribution, but by moral improvement of people. The legislator should strive not to achieve universal equality, but to equalize life chances.

Private property develops healthy selfish interests. When they are, people do not grumble at each other, as everyone is busy with his own business. If there are those in society who work a lot and receive little, they will always be dissatisfied with those who work a little and receive a lot. Man is governed by a multitude of needs and aspirations, but the main driving force is the love of money, because everyone is sick with this passion. With collective ownership, all or most are poor or angry. When it is private, wealth and inequality appear, but only it gives citizens the opportunity to show generosity and mercy. However, excessive inequality in property is dangerous for the state. Aristotle extols a society in which the middle class is stronger than all the others.

Presotsiology in New Time

Niccola Machiavelli (1469–1527) was the first of the modern thinkers to turn to the ideas of Plato and Aristotle and based on them the original theory of society and the state.

His main work, The Sovereign, seems to continue the main line of reasoning of Plato's “State,” but the emphasis is not on the structure of society, but on the behavior of a political leader. Machiavelli formulated the laws of behavior of the ruler who wants to succeed.

The first law: the actions of people governed by ambition and the desire for power. To achieve the stability of society, it is necessary to find out which social order is more ambitious. All this is destructive for the state, and any cruelty is justified to maintain stability.

The second law: a clever ruler should not fulfill all his promises. After all, subjects are not in a hurry to fulfill their obligations. Achieving power, you can squander promises, but when you come to it, you do not have to fulfill them, otherwise you will become dependent on subordinates. To deserve hatred for good deeds is as easy as evil ones, but evil is a sign of firmness. Hence the advice: in order to win power, one must be kind, but in order to keep it, one must be cruel.

The third law: to do evil is necessary immediately, and good - gradually. People value awards when they are rare, but punishment needs to be done immediately and in large doses.

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) took the next step: he developed the social contract theory, which became the basis of the theory of civil society. Hobbes posed the question: “How is society possible?” And answered it like this: “Firstly, people are born incapable of social life, but acquire an inclination towards it as a result of upbringing (socialization); secondly, civil society is generated by the fear of some in front of others. ” The natural state of people, according to Hobbes, is “the war of all against all,” the absolute rivalry of individuals in the struggle for existence. This natural state of society makes people fear each other. It is fear that makes people create a civil society, i.e. a society that, on a contractual basis, guarantees each of its members relative security from the hostile actions of others. Fear does not disconnect, but on the contrary, unites, prompts to take care of universal security. The state is the best way to meet this need. Civil society is the highest stage of development; it rests on legal norms recognized by all. In civil society, there are three forms of government: democracy, aristocracy, monarchy. As a result of the social contract, the war of all against all ceases: citizens voluntarily restrict personal freedom, receiving in return reliable protection.

The founders of modern sociology

Auguste Comte (1798–1857) - a thinker, whose contribution to science is not limited to the introduction of the term “sociology”, unexpectedly sharply contrasted the new discipline of philosophy. Comte's main idea is to separate "science" from "metaphysics" and theology. In his opinion, true science should abandon "insoluble" questions, i.e. such that it is impossible neither to confirm nor disprove, based on the facts available to empirical observation. Comte insisted on studying the interrelationships of facts, their functioning within the framework of large integrity, large systems. He considered society, humanity, the highest type of systems. Comte's sociological theory consists of two parts - “social statics” and “social dynamics”. The main interest of the French thinker focused on the dynamics. The primary factor of social dynamics is spiritual, mental development. Comte attributed the secondary climate, race, average human life expectancy, population growth, causing the division of labor and evoking the development of human intellectual and moral traits.

O. Comte believed that the historical logic of the development of science consists in the transition to higher-order sciences, each of which has the necessary prerequisite in the preceding one: mathematics - astronomy - physics - chemistry - biology - sociology. The positivist doctrine defended by Comte was directed against the speculative theorizing of social philosophy and the philosophy of history, at creating a “positive social science” just as evidence-based and valid as the natural science theories based on facts, on their connections, studied by methods of observation, comparison, experiment. accurate measurement. Positivists viewed society as an evolving social organism, the laws of which had common with natural ones. Sociology Comte can be viewed as an attempt to understand the structure of society, its political and dynamic structure with the help of scientific methods. The experience of the revolution had a great influence on the formation of such an image of society; a pragmatic project of social order was approved on scientific progress. Science was supposed to be the basis for a reasonable social order. Scientific knowledge, according to the encyclopaedists, acts as a whole. The laws of nature should extend to human society. The unity of all sciences reveals the unity of laws. Kontovsky sociology is a positive science, similar to the natural sciences. Auguste Comte can be considered the founder of sociology, since he not only began to study society and social processes, but also created a systematics science project and defined sociology in it, which served as the basis for the future academic institutionalization of sociology as a separate science.

Two ideas originating in the works of Comte, are viewed in the course of the development of sociology: the first is the use of scientific methods to study society; the second is the practical use of science for the implementation of social reforms.

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) - English philosopher and sociologist-positivist, founder of the organic school of sociology. Spencer was deeply influenced by the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin. He believed that it could be applied to all aspects of the development of the Universe, including the history of human society. Spencer compared societies with biological organisms, and certain parts of society (family, state, etc.) - with parts of the body (heart, nervous system, etc.), each of which affects the functioning of the whole. Spencer believed that, like biological organisms, societies develop from the simplest forms to more complex ones. "Natural selection" occurs in human society, contributing to the survival of the fittest. The process of adaptation, according to Spencer, contributes to the complexity of the social structure, as its parts become more specialized. Thus, societies develop from a relatively simple state, when all parts are interchangeable, in the direction of a complex structure with elements completely dissimilar. In a complex society, one part (ie, an institution) cannot be replaced by another. All parts must function for the good of the whole; otherwise the society will fall apart. According to Spencer, this relationship is the basis of social integration.

Fruitful was the assumption that the development process (“growth”) of any unit or set of units is accompanied by a progressive differentiation of their structures and functions: the more developed an organism, the more complex it is.

The degree of rigor and scope of internal management was for Spencer signs of the differences between types of societies. For example, he singled out “militant” societies, regulated by harsh coercion, and “industrial” societies, where control and centralization are weaker.

Over time, the Spencer concept of "one-line" evolution, i.e. continuous progress of societies, is modified into the theory of complicated "multilinear" evolution, which in some cases even implies the possibility of social degradation.

Spencer believed that it is useful for humanity to get rid of unadapted individuals through natural selection and the government should not interfere in this process — such a philosophy has been called “social Darwinism”. He considered this philosophy acceptable also for commercial enterprises and economic institutions.

Spencer believed that with non-interference of law in a social process, on the basis of free interaction between individuals and organizations, a natural and stable balance of interests would be achieved.

Spencer’s views, which were extremely popular at the time, were later rejected by science, and in the second half of the 20th century. again there was an interest in his theory, since Spencer was the forerunner of structural functionalism and systems analysis, which occupied the first place in modern sociology.

The classic stage of development of sociology

Of particular interest are the views of the German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918) . Sociology, Simmel believed, should be constituted not in the traditional way - by choosing a subject “unoccupied” by other social sciences, but as a method of science that determines its content. From this point of view, all the subjects of each of the social sciences are specially designed "channels" through which social life flows. On the contrary, the new sociological vision proposed by Simmel has as its task the study of patterns that are inaccessible to each of these sciences.

The goal of the sociological method is to identify in the aggregate subject of the social sciences pure forms of "sociation", or communication, which should be followed by their systematization, psychological justification and description in historical development.

According to Simmel, his concept, on the one hand, guarantees the clarity of separating sociology from other social sciences, since it studies pure forms of "sociation", on the other hand, it allows to draw the line between social sciences, in which the sociological method is possible, and the natural sciences. .

The classic of the “sociological school” is the French scientist Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) .

Among the general conditions necessary for the transformation of sociology into an independent science, he attributed the presence of a special subject, studied exclusively by this science, and an appropriate research method. Sociology must study, he believed, a social reality that has special, inherent qualities alone. Elements of social reality are social facts, the totality of which is society. These facts are the subject of sociology.

A “social fact”, by Durkheim's definition, is any manner of action, clearly defined or not, but capable of exerting external pressure on an individual and having at the same time its own existence, independent of it. At birth, the individual finds the laws and customs, rules of conduct, religious beliefs and rituals, language, and monetary system that function independently of him. These images of thoughts, actions and feelings exist independently, objectively.

The consequence of the objectivity of social facts is their other characteristic - the pressure they exert on individuals, forcing them to a certain action. Every person experiences social coercion. Legal and moral rules, for example, cannot be violated without the individual feeling the full weight of general disapproval. The same is true of other types of social facts.

According to Durkheim, society has certain functional prerequisites, the most important of which is the need for social order. It derives from human nature, which has two sides. The first is egoistic: partly the behavior of people is determined by biological needs, which are realized in satisfying interests, which makes it difficult for individuals to integrate into society. The second side of human nature is the ability to believe in moral values. Society must fully support this faith, thereby ensuring the possibility of social life and stability. At the heart of the consensus, according to Durkheim, lies the collective consciousness, consisting of common beliefs. Without this consensus on core moral values, social solidarity would not be possible, and individuals could not be together, forming an integrative social unity. According to Durkheim, "where interest is the only ruling force, individuals are at war with each other." In this regard, it is very important that the collective consciousness as a social fact has an impact on the individual. “Society must be present in the individual,” notes Durkheim. This is achieved mainly through religion: realizing their dependence on otherworldly forces, people realize their dependence on society.

However, Durkheim was far from thinking that societies functioned smoothly at all times. In a number of papers, he suggested that industrial societies based on organic solidarity may come to a complete decline. This will be possible if selfishness and anomie lead to a loss of control over individuals by society. Although Durkheim saw the possibility of conflict within an industrial society, he believed that he could be kept within acceptable limits thanks to the existence of trade unions, the teaching of moral values ​​and the functioning of society so that justice spreads to all its members.

"Understanding" sociology M. Weber (1864-1920) . As a necessary prerequisite for sociology, Weber puts not a "whole" (society), but a separate meaningful individual. According to Weber, public institutions: law, state, religion, etc. - should be studied by sociology in the form in which they become significant for individuals, in which the latter are really oriented towards them in their actions. He denied the idea that society is more primary than its constituent individuals, and "demanded" to proceed in sociology from the actions of certain people. In this regard, we can talk about the methodological individualism of Weber.

But Weber did not stop at extreme individualism. Отсюда неотъемлемым моментом социального действия он считает «ориентацию действующего лица на другого индивида или окружающих его других индивидов». Без этого введения, то есть ориентации на другое действующее лицо или социальные институты общества, его теория осталась бы классической «моделью робинзонады», где в действиях индивида нет никакой «ориентации на другого». В этой «ориентации на другого» получает свое «признание» и «социально общее», в частности, «государство», «право», «союз» и т.д. Отсюда «признание» «ориентация на другого» – становится одним из центральных методологических принципов социологии Вебера.

Социология, по Веберу, является «понимающей», поскольку изучает поведение личности, вкладывающей в свои действия определенный смысл. Действия человека обретают характер социального действия , если в них присутствуют два момента: субъективная мотивация индивида и ориентация на другого (других). Понимание мотивации, «субъективно подразумеваемого смысла» и отнесение его к поведению других людей – необходимые моменты собственно социологического исследования, отмечает Вебер, приводя для иллюстрации своих соображений пример человека, рубящего дрова. Так, можно рассматривать рубку дров лишь как физический факт – наблюдатель понимает не рубщика, а то, что дрова рубятся. Можно рассматривать рубщика как обладающее сознанием живое существо, интерпретируя его движения. Наконец, возможен и такой вариант, когда центром внимания становится субъективно переживаемый индивидом смысл действия, т.е. задаются вопросы: «Действует ли этот человек согласно разработанному плану? Каков этот план? Каковы его мотивы? В каком контексте значений воспринимаются эти действия им самим?» Именно этот тип «понимания», основанный на постулате существования индивида совместно с другими индивидами в системе конкретных координат ценностей, служит основой реальных социальных взаимодействий в жизненном мире. Социальным действием, пишет Вебер, считается действие, «субъективный смысл которого относится к поведению других людей». Исходя из этого, нельзя считать действие социальным, если оно является чисто подражательным, когда индивид действует, как атом толпы, или когда он ориентируется на какое-либо природное явление (не является, например, действие социальным, когда множество людей раскрывает зонты во время дождя).

The subject of sociology should, according to Weber, be not so much the immediate behavior as its semantic result. For the nature of the mass movement is largely determined by the semantic attitudes that guide the mass constituent individuals.

Listing the possible types of social action, Weber points out four: purposeful; value-rational; affective; traditional

1. Целерациональное действие характеризуется ясным пониманием деятелем того, чего он хочет добиться, какие пути, средства для этого наиболее пригодны. Деятель рассчитывает возможные реакции окружающих, как и в какой мере их можно использовать для своей цели и т.д. (Это действия инженера, который строит мост; спекулянта, который стремится заработать деньги; генерала, который хочет одержать победу. Здесь субъект ставит перед собой ясную цель и применяет соответствующие средства для ее достижения.)

2. Ценностно-рациональное действие подчинено сознательной вере в этическую, эстетическую, религиозную или какую-либо другую, иначе понимаемую, безусловную собственную ценность (самоценность) определенного поведения, взятого просто как таковое и независимо от успеха. (Это действия капитана, который утонул, отказываясь покинуть свое судно; действия дуэлянтов и т.д.)

3. Аффективное действие обусловлено чисто эмоциональным состоянием, осуществляется в состоянии аффекта. (Драка футболистов во время игры и т.д. Здесь поступок определяется не системой ценностей, не целью, а эмоциональной реакцией.)

4. Традиционное действие диктуется привычками, обычаями, верованиями. Оно осуществляется на основе глубоко усвоенных социальных образцов поведения.

As Weber notes, the four ideal types described do not exhaust the whole variety of types of orientation of human behavior. However, they can be considered the most characteristic.

В трудах Вебера блестяще исследованы феномены бюрократии и прогрессирующей рационализации общества. Рационализация, по Веберу, это результат воздействия нескольких феноменов, несших в себе рациональное начало, а именно – античной науки, особенно математики, дополненной в эпоху Возрождения экспериментом, экспериментальной наукой, а затем и техникой. Здесь же Вебер выделяет рациональное римское право, которое получило на европейской почве свое дальнейшее развитие, а также рациональный способ ведения хозяйства, возникший благодаря отделению рабочей силы от средств производства. Фактором, который позволил, как бы синтезировать все эти элементы, явился протестантизм, создавший мировоззренческие предпосылки для осуществления рационального способа ведения хозяйства, поскольку экономический успех был возведен протестантской этикой в религиозное призвание.

This is how the modern industrial type of society was formed, which is different from the traditional ones. And its main difference is that in traditional societies there was no dominance of the formal and rational principle. Formal reality - this is something that is quantifiable, without the rest is exhausted by quantitative characteristics. As Weber shows, movement in the direction of formal reality is the movement of the historical process itself.

Thus, the development of sociology continues to this day, when its place in the system of sciences has been more clearly defined. About sociology, we can say that it is a socio-humanitarian science, its object is modern society.

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