5 Etiquette in the Middle Ages

Etiquette appears to us in a different way in the epoch of the Middle Ages, when it is formed and exists in its classical form. Most researchers of the history of culture attribute the emergence of etiquette as the established regulatory system to this time.

The most interesting and important in this regard are the last two stages of the Middle Ages: its heyday (XI - XV centuries) and later Middle Ages (XVI - first half XVII centuries) - the period of decomposition of feudalism and the emergence of bourgeois society.

The official ideology of the Middle Ages sharply contrasted the spiritual to the material. Openly proclaimed separation of spirit and body, sacred and worldly, God and man, the division brought to confrontation in the teachings of St. Augustine, defined the new system of spiritual values, a different relationship between good and evil appears as the confrontation between God and the devil. St. Augustine has a teaching about the “city of God.” Two kinds of love, the first spokesmen of which were Cain and Abel, “earthly love for oneself, brought to contempt for God, and heavenly love for God, brought to contempt for oneself,” create “two cities” - the earthly (waiting for him death) and heavenly (eternal). The human race is devoid of heavenly hail because of original sin and is branded with the Cain seal. The soul of a person is burdened by physicality, a person is doomed to eternal torment of hell after a brief earthly existence, in which he of his own free will can only sin. Wisdom, courage - a manifestation of sinful pride; true virtues are humility, faith in God, love for him, and hope for salvation. The only form of human earthly activity that is worthy of approval is religious asceticism (asceticism and the struggle against heretics).

The medieval society of Western Europe was strictly hierarchical. The public consciousness of this epoch represented it consisting of three ranks - "praying, warring, and working." But gradually the class of feudal lords began to expand at the expense of the ignoble warriors (knights). K XI century. in Western Europe there was a special class - chivalry, which in the XII - XV centuries. reached its heyday. The knights themselves considered themselves “the color of the world,” the highest stratum of society, who created their own way of life, their own code of morality and mores. They formed special norms and values ​​that allowed them to secede from the ignoble, commoners. XIV - XV centuries. they call it the age of chivalry, and there really is a reason for this, since at that time chivalry was finally formed as a special estate, as a certain way of life and, finally, as a certain mentality and culture.

It was during this period of the Middle Ages that the image of the ideal knight and the code of knightly honor finally formed in the public consciousness. The ideal of behavior and lifestyle becomes the maximum approximation to this personal pattern. So what was this image of a knight “without fear and reproach,” what qualities did he have to possess?

To this end, let us turn to the materials of the book “Knight and the Bourgeois” by M. Ossowski, to other historical and artistic sources that give an idea of ​​this time.

“In principle,” writes M. Ossovskaya, “the knight was supposed to come from a good kind ...” in principle, ”because sometimes knights were initiated for exceptional military feats. In addition, it was possible - and this happened more and more often as cities developed and their values ​​increased - to buy this privilege. ”

One of the main signs of nobility among secular feudal lords was a long lineage that was conducted along the paternal line - lineage. This caused the desire of each of them in any way possible and at every opportunity to glorify the real, and often invented, valor and moral virtues and feats of their ancestors.

The core of the knightly code of honor was loyalty to his liege. Treachery and treachery were considered to be the gravest sin for a knight and entailed the expulsion from the military-aristocratic corporation, which was the knighthood.

From the knight it was expected that he would constantly take care of his fame. This was due to the fact that in the culture of chivalry the external aspect was extremely important. In the life of a knight, much has been deliberately paraded. He constantly sought to championship, to fame, to fame, which required their confirmation with new and new tests and deeds. The knight constantly had to confirm his place in the hierarchy, which depended on the quantity and quality of the knights he had defeated. He could not calmly listen to others' successes and sought to ensure that “the whole Christian world” knew about his exploits and his love adventures. (How not to recall in connection with this the “glorious knight of the sad image” of Don Quixote!)

It should be noted that the indispensable property of a knight, as a man of noble born, should have been generosity, especially with respect to those who glorified the feats of a knight at court. These people could always count on “a good treat and decent occasional gifts before going on a further journey.” From the knight it was required, without bargaining, to give anyone what he asked for as a payment. “It’s better to go broke than to be a miser. The first is only for a time, since accepting a gift is bound to pay back a hundredfold. Stinginess leads to loss of rank, status, exclusion from society. ”

The orientation of knightly culture on the external manifestation was expressed in the fact that beauty and attractiveness were emphasized as knightly virtues. Hence the outward brilliance of the culture of chivalry, special attention to ritual, attributes, symbolism of color, objects, manners. The beauty of the knight had to emphasize expensive clothes, richly decorated with gold and precious stones. Clothing accurately indicated the social category and position of the person wearing it. To wear the wrong clothes that fit a man according to his rank meant to commit the sin of pride or, on the contrary, fall. Particular attention in this regard was paid to accessories - hats and gloves, which accurately indicated the rank.

From the knight required courtesy, the ability to compose, or at least read poetry, play any musical instrument. He had to be developed and physically, since quite a lot of physical strength was constantly required of him - otherwise he simply could not wear armor, which weighed 60 to 80 kg. A distinctive feature of a knight was unconditional loyalty to his obligations towards his peers, therefore in this environment various knightly vows, oaths, agreements, which were accompanied by special gestures, were widely distributed. At the same time, the character of publicity was given to the knightly vows and vows.

It was the duty of the knights to take care of orphans, widows, and generally care for the weak. But still the main component of the knightly code was the attitude towards the enemy and the woman.

One of the absolute requirements for a knight was courage. Fear of being suspected of cowardice, lack of courage dictated the appropriate forms of the knight’s behavior in battle: he had no right to retreat; it was impossible to kill the enemy from behind; the murder of an unarmed enemy, the cover of the knight in shame; should have given the enemy, if possible, equal chances (if the enemy fell from his horse, the knight also got off his horse), etc.

All these rules, obligatory in battle, were dictated by respect for the enemy, pride and, finally, humanity. The main thing for the knight was not the victory itself, but the behavior in battle, regardless of whether this battle was a real battle or a knightly tournament that gained particular popularity and pomp in the XII - XIV centuries when knights from all over Europe gathered on them.

At the same time, the chivalrous ideals did not quite correspond to the principles of humanism, equality before God, forgiveness, etc., which were preached by Christianity. Pride - one of the worst sins for a Christian - was considered the most important advantage of a knight. Revenge for an insult (often imaginary) was the law of his ethics. Knights valued human life a little, their own and especially someone else's ... The neglect of someone else's life was aggravated by the fact that the knights considered it necessary to carry out their ethical code only within the framework of the social group to which they belonged.

Special was the attitude of the knight to his horse and, of course, to his weapon, which, like clothing, was included in the etiquette classification: depending on the social status, it was assumed that this or that weapon was worn in the hierarchical structure. For example, the saber and skramaskas were valued higher than the spear, the bow and arrows are even lower.

And finally, one of the most important duties of a knight was the worship of a beautiful lady.

The love ministry, the cult of the ladies were a kind of religion of chivalry. Love was given exceptional importance. She was supposed to ennoble the knight, to inspire him to feats. To win the favor of his beloved, the knight had to demonstrate self-denial, devotion, selflessness in service. He had to be able to control himself, to tame his impulses.

However, the attitude towards a woman depended on whether she was a lady of noble birth or a commoner. Care and adoration, of course, could only relate to the lady from her class. Exquisitely caring for a woman, giving her all sorts of signs of attention and love, the knight thereby emphasized his affiliation to the world of the elect, his own distinction from the “country woman.”

This type of love relationship to the Beautiful Lady was called the “courtly love” (from the old French court - “court”) - exquisitely polite, refined, kindly gallant.

Courtly love, in essence, was a form of the game in which participants had to strictly follow the rules and their assigned role. The French historian Georges Duby describes the model of courtly love in this way: “In the center of it is a married woman, the“ lady ”. An unmarried man, a “young man,” pays attention to her and ignites desire. From now on, struck by love (love meant then exclusively carnal attraction), he only thinks about taking possession of this woman. To achieve the goal, the man pretends that he obeys in all his chosen one. The lady is the wife of the lady, often the one whom he serves, in any case, she is the mistress of the house where he is received, and by virtue of this is his mistress. The man, however, strongly emphasizes his submission. He, as a vassal, kneels, he gives himself, his freedom and the gift of the chosen one. A woman can accept or reject this gift. If she, allowing herself to be carried away by words, accepts him, she is no longer free, since, according to the laws of that society, no gift can remain without remuneration ... However, a lady can not have her body at her own discretion: it belongs to her husband. Everyone in the house is watching her, and if she is seen to be in violation of the rules of conduct, she will be blamed for the guilty and may be subjected to the most severe punishment along with an accomplice.

The danger of the game gave it a special piquancy. The knight, embarked on a love affair, had to be careful and strictly keep the secret. Under the cover of this secret, hiding it from prying eyes, the lover was expecting a reward ... According to the rules of the game, he had to control himself, endlessly delaying the moment of owning his beloved. The pleasure, therefore, lay not so much in the satisfaction of desire, as in waiting. Desire itself became the highest pleasure. This is the true nature of courtly love, which is realized in the realm of imagination and in the field of play. ”

A curious, but not without grounds, explanation for the causes of love of a courtly type can be found in L. Feuchtwanger's novel Spanish Ballad: they have high-flown frozen love poems. ”

Initially, the feudal lords especially honored military prowess, physical strength. Courage, prowess, contempt for death, military loyalty and good fortune - that’s what is celebrated in folk tales about knights - in “Song of Roland”, “Legend of Side”, in “The Word of Igor's Regiment”. A secular feudal knight in France was supposed to have seven knightly virtues: to hold a spear, fence, hunt, ride, swim and play chess, and be able to compose poems to the beloved lady. These qualities are praised in knights of European moral literature of the XII-XIV centuries.

One of the most exciting (especially young girls' souls) is the mythologized “knightly” attitude towards a woman as “The Beautiful Lady”. In real medieval life, everything looked far from being as rosy as it seems to us through the prism of past centuries and through the thickness of the “knightly” novels read.

Care and affection for the Lady sitting somewhere on the balcony during knight fights were the exception rather than the rule of life. In general, it was about love that was not platonic, and, more often, with someone else’s wife. As for the seduced “Beautiful Lady”, the romantic passion ended, sometimes, very sadly: burning at the stake. (And what is curious, so cruel punishment did not scare away, but rather attracted sympathy and interest to adultery). In medieval France, renowned for courtly service to a noble lady, where, for the sake of glance and gesture, the beautiful women fought in tournaments, where love and worship were sung by troubadours and truvers, the husband could only suspect him of whip punishment, could submerge her in a cage send her to a monastery.

But, be that as it may, the code of chivalrous honor formed the basis for court etiquette of a later time, which, in turn, had a significant impact on the formation of the etiquette of our days.

The Renaissance epoch left us the most interesting treatise of LB Alberti “On Family”, written in the form of a conversation between a father and his five sons. The family, according to Alberti, should be large, all generations should be together. Patriarchal relations reign in the family, and therefore the authority of the father, as well as the power and the right of the elders, is unquestioned. Alberti lists the basic moral commandments that preserve the family: diligence, justice, peacefulness, self-control, modesty. Another important point highlights the author: "Let your expenses be equal to income or less income." The main female virtue (after innocence at the time of the wedding night) Alberti considers the ability to manage the household (not counting on the help of her husband) and ... keep quiet, listening to his teachings and instructions.

Many provisions of the treatise Alberti echo the Russian “Domostroi” (XVI century). And even though the Russian Renaissance was still a long way away, many of the rules and customs with Europe were surprisingly similar.

During the period of the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, when instead of hundreds of small principalities in Europe, large states began to arise and grow up, the life of court life also changed. This is no longer the “knightly binge” of the times of King Arthur with their coarse simplicity and artlessness. This is a strictly canonized, lush, stiff ceremoniousness.

At this time, there are various manuals on etiquette, which becomes so complex that special people appear at the courtyards, knowing all its subtleties and following their unconditional fulfillment - the master of ceremonies. A bit later, a sharp criticism of the “idiocy of court life” appears. “Imagine yourself a man ignorant of the laws, almost a direct enemy of the public good, pursuing only his personal benefits, devoted to voluptuousness, a hater of scholarship, a hater of truth and freedom,” wrote Rotterdam.

The principles of courtly love relationships had a great influence on the formation of both spiritual culture and customs, traditions of the time. “This love, hot and earthly, but at the same time poetic and idealized,” F. Cardini notes, “threw an open challenge to church asceticism. She inspired the authors of knightly novels and troubadours, poets-knights, who appeared in Provence at the end of the XI century. In the XII century. poetry truly becomes the “master” of European literature. From Provence, her passion for spreading to other countries. Truvery appear in the north of France, in Minnesinger, in Germany, courtly poetry flourishes on the Iberian Peninsula. ”

In turn, as J. Duby considers: “Reading courtly literature and projecting its plots on the everyday behavior of people gradually involved unmarried girls in the game, from the end of the 12th century. in France courtly customs become part of the ritual preceding marriage. The game also included married men. They could now also choose among themselves the women of a “friend,” whom they served as young knights. The whole knightly society has become entirely courtly. Куртуазные обычаи превратились в норму, и то, что поэты некогда воспевали как опасный и почти недостижимый подвиг, стало теперь обычным требованием хорошего тона”.

Закрепившиеся в рыцарском кодексе слова, жесты, новые модели поведения, взгляды на взаимоотношения с равными и подчиненными постепенно проникали и в другие слои общества. Сформировался особый тип общественных взаимоотношений, которые характерны для европейского общества и по настоящее время. Сегодня, несмотря на огромные перемены в этой области, яркой отличительной чертой европейской цивилизации являются традиции, унаследованные от куртуазной любви.

В этот исторический период доблесть и добродетель заключались не в том, чтобы быть человеком нравственным, гармоничным, по-своему уникальным и непохожим на других, но, напротив, в том, чтобы соответствовать жестким образцам, стандартам, авторитетам, подчинять свою индивидуальность типичному, а личное поведение – строгим правилам обычаев и этикета, которые становились все более формализированными.

Одной из особенностей данного этапа развития культуры, повлекшего за собой значительные изменения в нормах поведения людей, явилось то, что эта культура предполагала не просто хорошую материальную основу жизни господствующего сословия, но богатство и роскошь как условия праздной жизни двора. Эта жизнь была ориентирована на пиршества и развлечения и объективно требовала изменения системы норм, регламентирующей нравы двора.

Undoubtedly, many of the rules of behavior, changing, adapting each time to the conditions that arise, continued their lives. In the Middle Ages, was born a new social institution of people who depend on a powerful person. Knights, court artists, diplomats had their social status and their strict norms and rules of conduct. The court etiquette is interesting, among other things, because the norms and rules of gallant behavior that were formed then were largely preserved and underlie our etiquette.

Двор требовал прежде всего особых личностных образцов, так как профессиональные занятия человека должны были быть незаметны, не на виду. Не следовало обнаруживать особых усилий для их выполнения – все легко, непринужденно, между прочим. Единственным достойным занятием для придворного раннего средневековья считалось занятие рыцаря, но в то же время рыцарь должен был хорошо уметь делать все, за что ни возьмется. При дворе человек оценивался по тому, что он вносил в придворную культуру с

ее ориентацией на пиршества и развлечения. Турниры, состязания, охота заполняли утренние часы, а вечером давались маскарады и балы. Главным стимулом было желание блеснуть, выделиться, стремление к помпезности.

Существовало только одно правило, которое нельзя было нарушать дворянину – клятву честью (хотя при отступлении от этой клятвы честь могла быть восстановлена дуэлью). Был только один долг, который требовал обязательной оплаты – долг карточный, называемый, долгом чести; остальные долги можно было вовсе не платить – рыцарская честь от этого совершенно не страдала.

При этом чувство чести было настолько обостренным, что нарушение этикета считалось смертельным оскорблением. Правда, задетую честь можно было достаточно легко восстановить. Для этого кодекс рыцарской чести предусматривал несколько вариантов действий, описанных в книге А. Шопенгауэра “Афоризмы житейской мудрости”.

Во-первых, публично нанесенное оскорбление могло быть публично взято назад. Можно было извиниться, после чего оскорбление считалось как бы не нанесенным и честь дворянина не страдала (независимо от того, насколько искренни были эти извинения).

Во-вторых, самым надежным и радикальным средством была дуэль. С ее помощью можно было скоро и вполне восстановить оскорбленную честь. Если оскорбитель не принадлежал к сословию, исповедующему кодекс рыцарской чести, то при оскорблении словом, а тем паче действием приходилось прибегать к серьезной операции: убить его тут же на месте, если есть при себе оружие, или не позже чем через час – и честь спасена.

В-третьих, если дуэль по каким-то причинам затруднительна или нежелательна для оскорбленного, то для него есть еще один выход: если оскорбитель был с ним груб, то надо поступить по отношению к нему еще грубее; “если при этом ругани недостаточно – можно избить его; для спасения чести в таких случаях существует ряд рецептов: пощечина исцеляется ударом палки, эти последние – плетью; для лечения ударов плети иные рекомендуют как отличное испытанное средство – плевок в лицо”.

Таким образом, основным принципом, составляющим ядро всего кодекса рыцарской чести, был принцип “кулачного права” (“прав тот, кто грубее, сильнее”). “Записной дуэлист, – поясняет устами своих героев П. Мериме, – это человек безукоризненно светский, человек, который дерется, если кто-нибудь заденет его плащом, если в четырех шагах от него плюнут и по всякому другому столь же важному поводу, а репутация дамы тем прочнее, чем больше из-за нее погибло людей”.

Отчасти, видимо, этими суровостями законов чести объясняется то настойчивое стремление знати следовать формальностям этикета, букве этикета буквально всегда и во всем, что нередко превращалось в своеобразное соревнование в учтивости: порой по четверти часа длились пререкания о том, кому в том или ином случае должно быть предоставлено первенство. И чем дольше при этом оказывались от приоритета участники этой сцены, тем большее удовлетворение испытывали присутствующие. Вот один из эпизодов: “Накануне битвы при Креси четыре французских рыцаря отправляются разведать особенности боевого порядка англичан. Король медленно едет по полю верхом, с нетерпением ожидая их возвращения. Увидев их издали, он останавливается. Прокладывая себе путь сквозь скопленье солдат, они приближаются к королю. “Какие новости, господа?” – спрашивает король. Вначале они взирали друг на друга, не произнося ни слова, ибо никто не желал говорить раньше, чем кто-либо из его спутников, а затем стали обращаться один к другому со словами: “Сударь, прошу вас, расскажите Вы королю, вперед Вас говорить я не буду”. Так они препирались какое-то время, и никто “par honneur” (“из почтения”) не хотел быть первым. Пока, наконец, король не вынужден был приказать это одному из рыцарей, на ком он сам остановил выбор”.

Ответом на эти социальные потребности и явился этикет, организующий поведение придворных таким образом, чтобы возвеличить царствующую особу и утвердить придворную иерархию. Само понятие “этикет” обозначало строго установленный порядок и формы обхождения при дворе монарха. Впервые это слово было использовано в этом значении на одном из пышных и изысканных приемов у короля Людовика XIV, где гостям были предложены карточки с перечнем правил поведения.

Назначение этикета ограничивалось узким кругом людей, принадлежавших к высшему сословию общества, и за пределы этого сословия не выходило.

Этикет задавал стандарты и каноны не только поведения, но и всего образа жизни дворянства, приводя его к “общему знаменателю”: надо было “вести себя как все”, и “жить как все”, и чтобы “все было как у всех”.

Etiquette permeated all spheres of life of the upper class, literally to the smallest detail regulating the life of the court. The family members of the monarch had to get up at a certain hour. It was precisely stated who is obliged to be present when the monarch is dressed, who should keep and serve clothes, toiletries, etc. It was determined in advance who accompanies the monarch, how the ceremonies of audiences, dinners, walks, balls take place.

The woman presented to the court, removed from the reigning person, had to move her back to the exit, with her foot throwing off the train of her dress so as not to get entangled in it.

Etiquette precisely regulated to what height, crossing the threshold, court ladies of this or that rank could lift skirts. It was indicated which court ladies should go hand in hand. Etiquette prescribed the number and configuration of lines that should have been drawn during the curtsy of the court persona.

Etiquette was in the nature of the law and had a very strong impact on high society. Violation of the rules of etiquette was considered a crime. And in his circle the courtiers had to strictly adhere to the notions of honor. But the court honor, according to Montesquieu, is an expression of interest in his own image in the eyes of others (and not an inner need). And a person should speak the truth only because “that a person who has become accustomed to telling the truth seems brave and free,” and to be polite, not because he cannot do otherwise, but because politeness shows that we are not of low rank.